Chapter
1.2.3 Ocean storage of heat and fresh water
1.2.5 Ocean transport of heat, fresh water and carbon
1.2.6 Climatic and oceanic variability
1.2.7 Impacts of ocean climate
Chapter 1.3. The Origins, Development and Conduct of WOCE
1.3.2 Large-scale oceanography in the 1960s and 1970s
1.3.3 Ocean research and climate
1.3.4 Implementation of WOCE (SSG initiatives)
1.3.5 Implementation and oversight
1.3.6 Was WOCE a success and what is its legacy?
Section 2: Observations and Models
Chapter 2.1. Global Problems and Global Observations
2.1.1 Different views of the ocean
2.1.2 The origins of WOCE
2.1.4 The need for global-scale observations
2.1.5 Where do we go from here?
Chapter 2.2. High-Resolution Modelling of the Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulation
2.2.1 The improving realism of ocean models
2.2.2 Historical perspective
2.2.3 Basic model design considerations: equilibrium versus non-equilibrium solutions
2.2.4 Examples of model behaviour in different dynamical regimes
Chapter 2.3. Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Models
2.3.1 Why coupled models?
2.3.2 Formulation of coupled models
2.3.3 Model drift and flux adjustment
2.3.4 Initialization of coupled models
2.3.5 Coupled model simulation of present and past climates
2.3.6 Coupled model simulation of future climates
2.3.7 Climate models, WOCE and future observations
2.3.8 Summary and future developments
Section 3: New Ways of Observing the Ocean
Chapter 3.1. Shipboard Observations during WOCE
3.1.1 The role of hydrographic measurements
3.1.2 CTD and sample measurements
3.1.3 Current measurements in the shipboard hydrographic programme
3.1.4 Shipboard meteorology
3.1.5 Summary and conclusions
Chapter 3.2. Subsurface Lagrangian Observations during the 1990s
3.2.1 Determining currents in the ocean
3.2.2 Historical aspects: Stommel’s
3.2.3 The WOCE Float Programme
3.2.4 WOCE float observations
Chapter 3.3. Ocean Circulation and Variability from Satellite Altimetry
3.3.1 Altimeter observations
3.3.2 The ocean general circulation
3.3.3 Large-scale sea-level variability
3.3.4 Currents and eddies
3.3.5 Concluding discussions
Chapter 3.4. Air–Sea Fluxes from Satellite Data
3.4.2 Bulk parameterization
Chapter 3.5. Developing the WOCE Global Data System
3.5.1 Organization and planning for WOCE data systems
3.5.2 Elements of the WOCE Data System
3.5.3 The WOCE Global Data Set and future developments
Section 4: The Global Flow Field
Chapter 4.1. The World Ocean Surface Circulation
4.1.3 The global mean velocity and velocity variance
4.1.4 The wind-driven Ekman currents
4.1.5 Future global circulation observations
Chapter 4.2. The Interior Circulation of the Ocean
4.2.1 Processes in the ocean interior
4.2.2 Observational evidence
4.2.3 Theory of gyre-scale circulation
4.2.4 The abyssal circulation
Chapter 4.3. The Tropical Ocean Circulation
4.3.1 Flow and water mass transformation patterns
4.3.2 Equatorial phenomena in the Pacific Ocean
4.3.3 Equatorial Atlantic
4.3.4 Near-equatorial circulation in the Indian Ocean
4.3.5 Overall conclusions
Chapter 4.4. Tropical–Extratropical Oceanic Exchange Pathways
4.4.1 The role of diffusion and advection
4.4.2 Tropical–subtropical exchanges of thermocline waters
4.4.3 Tropical–subpolar exchange of Intermediate Waters
4.4.4 Summary and further issues
Chapter 4.5. Quantification of the Deep Circulation
4.5.1 Deep circulation in the framework of WOCE
4.5.2 Deep Western Boundary Currents
4.5.3 The interior: The Deep Basin Experiment
Chapter 4.6. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current System
4.6.1 Flow in the zonally unbounded ocean
4.6.2 Observations of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
4.6.3 Dynamics of the ACC
4.6.4 Water mass formation and conversion
4.6.5 The Southern Ocean and the global overturning circulations
Chapter 4.7. Interocean Exchange
4.7.4 The Agulhas Retroflection
Section 5: Formation and Transport of Water Masses
Chapter 5.1. Ocean Surface Water Mass Transformation
5.1.2 Theory of surface water mass transformation
5.1.3 Ocean surface temperature, salinity and density
5.1.4 Surface fluxes of heat, fresh water and density
5.1.5 Surface water mass transformation and formation
Chapter 5.2. Mixing and Stirring in the Ocean Interior
5.2.1 Scales of mixing and stirring
5.2.3 The Temporal-Residual-Mean circulation
5.2.4 Lateral dispersion between the mesoscale and the microscale
5.2.5 Diapycnal mixing in and above the main thermocline
5.2.6 Mixing in the abyss
5.3.1 A little of the background on oceanic subduction
5.3.2 Surface-layer dynamics and thermodynamics of the subduction process
5.3.3 Development of steady, continuous models: Application to numerical model analysis and observations
5.3.4 Transient response of the thermocline to decadal variability
5.3.5 Summary and outlook
5.4.1 Ventilation and mode water generation
5.4.2 Definition, detection and general characteristics of mode waters
5.4.3 Geographical distribution of mixed-layer depth and mode waters in the world’s oceans
5.4.4 Temporal variability of mode water properties and distribution
Chapter 5.5. Deep Convection
5.5.1 Convection and spreading
5.5.2 Plumes – the mixing agent
5.5.3 Temperature and salinity variability
5.5.5 Summary and discussion
Chapter 5.6. The Dense Northern Overflows
5.6.3 Observed transport means and variability
5.6.4 Processes in the overflows
5.6.5 Analytical models of the overflow
5.6.6 Numerical models of the overflow
5.6.7 Overflow variability
5.6.8 What have we learnt in WOCE?
Chapter 5.7. Mediterranean Water and Global Circulation
5.7.2 Formation of Mediterranean Water
5.7.3 Outflow of Mediterranean Water at the Strait of Gibraltar
5.7.4 The effect of Mediterranean Water outflow on the circulation of the North Atlantic and the World Oceans
Chapter 5.8. Transformation and Age of Water Masses
5.8.2 Tracer methodology and techniques
Section 6: Large-Scale Ocean Transports
Chapter 6.1. Ocean Heat Transport
6.1.1 The global heat balance
6.1.2 Bulk formula estimates of ocean heat transport
6.1.3 Residual method estimates of ocean heat transport
6.1.4 Direct estimates of ocean heat transport
6.1.8 Outlook for direct estimates of ocean heat transport
Chapter 6.2. Ocean Transport of Fresh Water
6.2.1 The importance of freshwater transport
6.2.2 Indirect estimates of oceanic freshwater transport
6.2.3 Impacts of uncertainties on model development
6.2.4 Direct ocean estimates of freshwater transport
6.2.5 Comparison of direct and indirect flux estimates
6.2.6 Mechanisms of oceanic freshwater transport
Chapter 6.3. Storage and Transport of Excess CO2 in the Oceans: The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey
6.3.3 The JGOFS/WOCE Global CO2 Survey
6.3.4 Synthesis of Global CO2 Survey data: Review
6.3.5 Conclusions and outlook
Section 7: Insights for the Future
Chapter 7.1. Towards a WOCE Synthesis
7.1.1 Exploiting the WOCE data set
7.1.2 Data-based analyses
7.1.3 Model evaluation and development
7.1.4 Ocean state estimation
7.1.5 Summary and outlook
Chapter 7.2. Numerical Ocean Circulation Modelling: Present Status and Future Directions
7.2.1 Remarks on the history of ocean modelling
7.2.2 Space–time scales of ocean processes and models
7.2.4 Atmospheric forcing and coupling
7.2.5 Organization of model development
Chapter 7.3. The World during WOCE
7.3.1 Assessing the representativeness of the WOCE data set
7.3.2 The state of the atmosphere during WOCE
7.3.3 The analysis of decadal change in intermediate water masses of the World Ocean
7.3.4 Climatic warming of Atlantic Intermediate Waters
7.3.5 Spin-up of the North Atlantic gyre circulation
7.3.6 Altered patterns of exchange in Nordic Seas
7.3.7 System-wide changes in the Arctic Ocean
7.3.8 Interdecadal variability of Kuroshio transport
7.3.9 Evidence of water mass changes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans
7.3.10 Summary and Conclusions
Chapter 7.4. Ocean and Climate Prediction – the WOCE Legacy
7.4.1 The long-term context
7.4.4 WOCE and climate prediction
7.4.5 The mean state and long-term change
7.4.6 Ocean variability and prediction: GODAE
7.4.7 Institutionalizing the benefits of WOCE
Acronyms, abbreviations and terms
Ocean Circulation and Climate
：Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean
( Volume 103 )
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