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Plants as a Source of Natural Antioxidants

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Contents

Contributors

Preface

1. Plants of Indian Traditional Medicine with Antioxidant Activity

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Some Traditionally used Antioxidant Plants and Methods Used for ScreeningThem

1.3 Phytochemistry of Antioxidant Plants

1.4 Reverse Pharmacology with Traditionally used Antioxidant Plants

1.5 Bioprospecting for Traditionally AntioxidantPlants

1.6 Conclusion

References

2. Natural Antioxidants from Traditional Chinese Medicinal Plants

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Antioxidant Plants Used in the Chinese System of Medicine

2.3 Natural Antioxidants from Traditional Chinese Medicinal Plants

2.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

3. Review of the Antioxidant potential of African Medicinal and Food Plants

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Antioxidant potential of African Medicinal and Food Plants

3.2.1 Acanthaceae – tribe Justicieae

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson

Justicia flava (Vahl) Vahl

3.2.2 Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus spinosus L.

3.2.3 Anacardiaceae

Anacardium occidentale L.

Lannea spp.

Mangifera indica L.

Pistacia lentiscus L.

3.2.4 Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae)

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban

Pituranthos tortuosus (DC.) Benth. ex Asch. & Schweinf. (syn. Deverra tortuosa (Desf.) DC.)

3.2.5 Apocynaceae

Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd.

Secamone afzelii (Roem. & Schult.) K. Schum.

3.2.6 Arecaceae

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (E. melanococcana Gaertn.)

3.2.7 Asteraceae (formerly Compositae)

Bidens pilosa L.

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Robinson

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Tridax procumbens L.

Vernonia amygdalina Del.

3.2.8 Bignoniaceae

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.

Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau

Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.

3.2.9 Brassicaceae (formerly Cruciferae)

Cakile maritima Scop.

3.2.10 Burseraceae

Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.

Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam

3.2.11 Cannabaceae

Celtis africana Burm. f.

3.2.12 Capparidaceae

Cleome monophylla L.(syns C. massae Chiov., C. cordata Burch. ex DC., C. monophylla var. cordata (Burch. ex DC.) Sond., C. epilobioides Baker, C. subcordata Steud. ex Oliver)

3.2.13 Caricaceae

Carica papaya L.

3.2.14 Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album L. (syns C. browneanum Roem. & Schult., C. concatenatum Thuill. subsp. striatiforme Murr.,C. lanceolatum R. Br., C. probstii Aellen, C. probstii Aellen f. probsti and C. striatiforme Murr)

3.2.15 Clusiaceae

Allanblackia floribunda Oliv.

3.2.16 Cochlospermaceae

Cochlospermum tinctorium Perr. ex A. Rich. (syn. C. niloticum Oliv.)

3.2.17 Chrysobalanaceae

Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. (syns P. mobola Oliv., P. gardineri Hemsl.)

3.2.18 Combretaceae

Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. & Perr. (syn. A. schimperi Hochst. ex Hutch & Dalziel)

Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel.

3.2.19 Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. & Schult.

3.2.20 Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha racemosa Wall. ex Baill. (syn. A. paniculata Miq.)

Euphorbia heterophylla L. (syns E. geniculata Ortega, E. prunifolia Jacq., Poinsettia geniculata (Ortega) Klotzsch & Garcke, P. heterophylla (L.) Klotzsch & Garcke)

Ricinus communis L.

3.2.21 Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae)

Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers.

Albizia chevalieri Harms

Amblygonocarpus andongensis (Welw. ex Oliv) Exell & Torre

Astragalus spinosus Vahl.

Bauhinia rufescens Lam.

Cassia singueana (Del.) Lock (syn. C. sinqueana Del.)

Peltophorum africanum Sond.

Prosopis africana (Guill. and Perr.) Taub. (syns P. oblonga Benth., P. lanceolata Benth.)

Retama raetam (Forssk.) Webb

Senna italica Mill.

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (syns Cassia occidentalis L., Ditremexa occidentalis (L.) Britton & Rose ex Britton & P. Wilson)

Tamarindus indica L.

3.2.22 Icacinaceae

Icacina trichantha Oliv.

3.2.23 Irvingiaceae

Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke) Baill.

3.2.24 Lamiaceae

Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br.

3.2.25 Malvaceae

Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. A. Chev. and C. acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl.

Grewia mollis Juss.

Hibiscus esculentus L. (syn. Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench)

Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum.

3.2.26 Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss.

3.2.27 Moraceae

Ficus exasperata Vahl

3.2.28 Moringaceae

Moringa oleifera Lam.

3.2.29 Musaceae

Musa paradisiaca L.

3.2.30 Myrtaceae

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry (syns Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb., Caryophyllus aromaticus L.)

3.2.31 Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa L.

3.2.32 Oleaceae

Olea europaea L.

3.2.33 Pedaliaceae

Ceratotheca triloba (Bernh.) Hook. f.

Sesamum indicum L.

3.2.34 Phyllanthaceae

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill. (syn. Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle

3.2.35 Piperaceae

Piper nigrum L.

3.2.36 Pittosporaceae

Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims

3.2.37 Poaceae (formerly Gramineae)

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf

3.2.38 Polygonaceae

Emex australis Steinh.

3.2.39 Portulacacea

Portulaca oleracea L.

3.2.40 Rhamnaceae

Ziziphus mucronata Willd.

3.2.41 Rutaceae

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.

3.2.42 Sapotaceae

Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F. Gaertn.)

3.2.43 Solanaceae

Solanum nigrum L.

3.2.44 Theaceae

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

3.2.45 Verbenaceae

Lantana camara L. (syn. L. tiliifolia auct. non Cham.)

3.2.46 Vitaceae

Vitis vinifera L.

3.2.47 Xanthorrhoeaceae

Aloe spp.

Gasteria bicolor Haw.

3.2.48 Zygophyllaceae

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.

Zygophyllum simplex L. (syn. Tetraena simplex (L.) Beier & Thulin)

3.3 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

4. Antioxidant Plants from Brazil

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Applications of Antioxidant Substances

4.3 Brazilian Biodiversity

4.4 Brazilian Biomes

4.4.1 The Amazon biome

4.4.2 Cerrado biome

4.4.3 Caatinga biome

4.4.4 Atlantic Forest biome

4.4.5 Pantanal biome

4.4.6 Pampa biome

4.5 Conclusion

References

5. Antioxidant Characteristics of Korean Edible Wild Plants

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Antioxidant Compounds

5.2.1 Total phenolic content

5.2.2 Total flavonoid content

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

5.3.1 DPPH radical scavenging activity

5.3.2 Nitrite scavenging activity

5.3.3 ADH and ALDH activities

5.4 Cytotoxicity

5.5 Correlations

5.6 Conclusion

References

6. Algae as a Natural Source of Antioxidant Active Compounds

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Naturally Occurring Compounds

6.3 Antioxidant Activity of Algae

6.4 Antioxidant Activity of the Blue-green Alga Spirulina platensis

6.4.1 Measurement of the antiradical and antioxidative activity of extracts of S. platensis

6.4.2 Identification and determination of the phenolic compounds in S. platensis extracts

6.4.3 Discussion of results from the S. platensis studies and other investigations

6.5 Some Potential Application of Algal Antioxidants

6.5.1 Nutrition

6.5.2 Food additives

6.5.3 Use as a pharmaceutical agent

6.6 Conclusion

References

7 Antioxidant Potential of Marine Microorganisms: A Review

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Sources of Marine Bioactive/Antioxidant Biomolecules

7.2.1 Marine microalgae as a source of antioxidants

7.2.2 Marine bacteria as a source of antioxidants

7.2.3 Marine fungi as a source of antioxidants

7.3 Conclusion

References

8. Biotechnologies for Increasing Antioxidant Production from Plants

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Supplementing Antioxidants to Enhance Health and Longevity

8.3 Factors Affecting Availability of Antioxidants of Plant Origin

8.4 Plant Biotechnology and Antioxidants

8.4.1 Plant tissue culture

8.4.2 Cell suspension culture and hairy root culture

8.4.3 Combinatorial biosynthesis

8.4.4 Genetic engineering

8.5 Conclusion

References

9. Plant-Derived Antioxidants as Food Additives

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Food Oxidation and the Use of Antioxidants

9.2.1 Oxidation mechanisms

9.2.2 The role of antioxidants

9.3 Natural Substances of Plant Origin with Powerful Antioxidant Properties

9.4 The Application of Plant-derived Antioxidants and Antioxidant-containing Extracts in Food Matrices

9.4.1 Legislated plant-derived antioxidants

Lipophilic plant derived antioxidants:to cochromanols

Oregano and lemon balm extracts

9.4.2 Meat and meat products

9.4.3 Poultry

9.4.4 Fish and seafood

9.4.5 Fats and oils

Natural antioxidants and frying oils

9.5 Conclusion

References

10. Biochemical Activity and Therapeutic Role of Antioxidants in Plants and Humans

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Classifying Antioxidants

10.3 Levels of Defence and Mechanisms of Action of Antioxidants

10.4 Types of Antioxidants (with Particular Reference to Plants)

10.4.1 Antioxidants in plants

10.4.3 Ascorbate peroxidase (APx), glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and monodehyroascorbate reductase (MDHAR)

10.4.4 Catalase (CAT)

10.4.5 Glutathione peroxidase (GPx)

10.4.6 Glutathione (GSH)

10.4.7 Additional proteins/enzymes

10.4.8 Carotenoids as antioxidants

10.4.9 Vitamins as antioxidants

10.4.10 Minerals as antioxidants

10.4.11 Polyphenols as antioxidants

10.5 The Role of Antioxidants in Plants

10.5.1 Plants under biotic stress

10.5.2 Plants under abiotic stress

Salt stress

Drought stress

Flooding

Herbicide stress

Temperature stress

Oxygen deprivation stress: anoxia and post anoxia

Atmospheric pollutants: ozone and sulfur dioxide

Ultraviolet-B radiation

Heavy metal toxicity

Mineral nutrient deficiency

10.6 Role of Antioxidants in Humans

10.6.1 Cardiovascular diseases

10.6.2 Carcinogenesis

10.6.3 Ageing

10.6.4 Diabetes and diabetic complications

10.6.5 Neurodegenerative diseases

10.6.6 Liver diseases

10.6.7 Eye diseases

10.7 Concluding Remarks

References

11. Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants with Antioxidant Activity

11.1 Antioxidants

11.1.1 Endogenous antioxidants

11.2 Free Radical and ReactiveOxygenSpecies (ROS)

11.2 Free Radical and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

11.3 Reaction of Free Radicals with Different Biomolecules

11.3.1 Amino acids

11.3.2 DNA

11.3.3 Lipids

11.4 Protection against OxidativeStress

11.5 Mechanism of Action of Antioxidants

11.6 Oxidative Stress and Human Diseases

11.6.1 Cancer

11.6.2 Heart disease

11.6.3 Pulmonary diseases

11.6.4 Other diseases

11.7 Phytonutrients

11.7.1 Acacia catechu (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae)

11.7.2 Aegle marmelos (Rutaceae)

11.7.3 Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

11.7.4 Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)

11.7.5 Apium graveolens (Apiaceae)

11.7.6 Bacopa monnieri (Schrophulariaceae)

11.7.7 Butea monosperma (Fabaceae: Papilionoideae)

11.7.8 Cleome viscosa (Capparaceae)

11.7.9 Commiphora mukul (Burseraceae)

11.7.10 Emilia sonchifolia (Asteraceae)

11.7.11 Equisetum arvense (Equisetaceae)

11.7.12 Eupatorium ayapana (Asteraceae)

11.7.13 Garcinia kola (Clusiaceae)

11.7.14 Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae)

11.7.15 Hieracium pilosella (Asteraceae)

11.7.16 Momordica dioica (Cucurbitaceae)

11.7.17 Moringa pterygosperma (Moringaceae)

11.7.18 Murraya koenigii (Rutaceae)

11.7.19 Nigella sativa (Ranunculaceae)

11.7.20 Ocimum sanctum and O. tenuiflorum(Lamiaceae)

11.7.21 Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae)

11.7.22 Silybum marianum (Asteraceae)

11.7.23 Stevia rebaudiana (Asteraceae)

11.7.24 Swietenia mahagoni (Meliaceae)

11.7.25 Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae)

11.7.26 Trema cannabina (Cannabaceae)

11.7.27 Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae

11.7.28 Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

11.8 Conclusion

References

12. Endophytic Fungal Associations of Plants and Antioxidant Compounds

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Endophytes

12.3 Endophytes and Biodiversity

12.4 Products from Endophytes as Antioxidants

12.5 Conclusions

References

13. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in the Formation of Antioxidant Compounds

13.1 Introduction

13.2 The Rhizosphere and Plant–microbe Interactions

13.3 Mycorrhizae: the Symbiotic Association

13.4 Diversity and Function of MycorrhizalFungi

13.5 What Makes a Plant–Fungus Interaction into a Mycorrhizal Association?

13.6 Antioxidants and Mycorrhization

13.7 Mycorrhizae and the Formation of Antioxidants

13.8 Potential Mechanisms in the Production of Antioxidants by Mycorrhizal Plants

13.9 Mechanism of Action of Antioxidants

13.10 Future Prospects and Conclusions

Acknowledgement

References

14. Role of Mushrooms as a Reservoir of Potentially Active Natural Antioxidants: An Overview

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Oxidative Stress and Free Radical Damage

14.3 Antioxidant Defences

14.4 Mushrooms as Natural Antioxidants

Examples of the antioxidant activity of mushrooms

14.5 Conclusion

References

Index