Contents

Preface

Ocean Energy Technology Overview

Acknowledgments

Executive Summary

1. Ocean Energy

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Background

1.3. Technology Types

Wave Energy

Tidal Energy

Current Energy

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

1.4. Resources

1.5. Benefits

1.6. Barriers

Permitting

Environmental Impact

Transmission Lines

2. Wave Energy

2.1. Overview

2.2. Resources

2.3. Energy Conversion Technologies

3. Tidal and Marine Current Energy

3.1. Overview

3.2. Resources

3.3. Energy Conversion Technologies

4. Ocean Tidal Energy

4.1. Overview

4.2. Resources

4.3. Energy Conversion Technologies

5. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

5.1. Overview

5.2. Resources

5.3. Energy Conversion Technologies

Open Loop Cycle OTEC

Closed Loop Cycle OTEC

6. Conclusion

6.1. Development Summary

Testing Assistance

Resource Assessment Assistance

Sharing Technology

References

Status of Wave and Tidal Power Technologies for the United States

Executive Summary

Introduction

Marine Renewable Energy

Marine Renewable Energy Resource Estimates

Marine Renewable Energy Technology Maturity Path

Overview of Wave and Tidal Power Technologies

Summary of Research and Development Needs

Potential Contribution of NREL

Conclusions

References

Technology White Paper on

Ocean Current Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf

Introduction

Resource Potential

Resource Utilization Technologies

Environmental Considerations

Economic Considerations

Summary

References

End Notes

Technology White Paper on Wave Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf

Introduction

Resource Potential

Resource Utilization Technologies

Terminators

Attenuators

Point Absorbers

Overtopping Devices

Environmental Considerations

Economic Considerations

Summary

References

End Notes

Report to Congress on the Potential Environmental Effects of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Technologies

Executive Summary

Potential Environmental Effects of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Technologies

Options to Prevent Adverse Environmental Impacts

The Potential Role of Monitoring and Adaptive Management

The Components of an Adaptive Management Program

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Glossary

1. Introduction

2. Description of Technologies

2.1. Current Energy Technologies

2.2. Wave Energy Technologies

2.3. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

2.4. Marine and Hydrokinetic Technologies Database

3. Potential Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options

3.1. Alteration of Currents and Waves

3.1.1. Potential Near Field and Far Field Impacts of Hydrodynamic Alterations

3.1.2. Mitigation Options to Address Hydrodynamic Alterations

3.2. Alteration of Substrates and Sediment Transport and Deposition

3.2.1. Potential Near Field and Far Field Impacts of the Alteration of Sediment Transport

3.2.2. Mitigation Options to Address the Alteration of Sediment Transport

3.3. Impacts of Habitat Alterations on Benthic Organisms

3.3.1. Displacement of Benthic Organisms by Installation of the Project

3.3.2. Alteration of Habitats for Benthic Organisms during Operation

3.3.3. Mitigation Options to Address Habitat Alterations for Benthic Organisms

3.4. Impacts of Noise

3.4.1. Noise in the Aquatic Environment and Its Effects on Animals

3.4.2. Mitigation Options to Address Noise

Use of Sound Insulation within and around the Device

Employment of Bubble Screens and other Noise Barriers during Installation

Operation of AMDs to Exclude Animals from the Area

Location of the Project Away from Sensitive Environments

Limiting the Noisiest Activities to Least Sensitive Times

3.5. Impacts of Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)

3.5.1. Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Aquatic Organisms

3.5.2. Mitigation Options for Effects of Electromagnetic Fields

3.6. Toxic Effects of Chemicals

3.6.1. Toxicity of Paints, Anti-Fouling Coatings, and other Chemicals

3.6.2. Mitigation Options to Address Chemical Toxicity

3.7. Interference with Animal Movements and Migrations

3.7.1. Alteration of Local Movement Patterns

3.7.2. Interference with Migratory Animals

3.7.3. Mitigation Options to Address Local and Migratory Movements of Animals

3.8. Collision and Strike

3.8.1. Effects of Rotor Blade Strike on Aquatic Animals

3.8.2. Effects of Water Pressure Changes and Cavitation

3.8.3. Mitigation Options to Address Collision and Strike

3.9. Impacts of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

3.9.1. Effects on Ocean Ecosystems

3.9.2. Mitigation Options to Address Effects of OTEC Technologies on Ocean Ecosystems

4. Environmental Assessment, Adaptive Management, and Environmental Monitoring

4.1. Environmental Impact Assessment Approaches

4.2. Incorporating Adaptive Management into Development and Environmental Monitoring of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Technologies

4.3. Federal Licensing of Marine and Hydrokinetic Renewable Energy Technologies

4.4. Environmental Monitoring

4.4.1. Monitoring for Alteration of Currents and Waves

4.4.2. Monitoring for Effects on Sediment Transport

4.4.3. Monitoring for Effects of Benthic Habitat Alterations

4.4.4. Monitoring for Effects of Noise

4.4.5. Monitoring for Electromagnetic Fields

4.4.6. Monitoring the Toxic Effects of Chemicals

4.4.7. Monitoring Interference with Animal Movements and Migrations

4.4.8. Monitoring the Effects of Strike

4.4.9. Monitoring of OTEC Projects

4.4.10. Monitoring for Cumulative Impacts of Multiple Units and Multiple Energy Projects

5. Conclusions

6. Literature Cited

Appendix A. List of Individuals, Agencies, and Organizations Contacted

Appendix B. Technology Concepts and Developers

DOE’s Marine and Hydrokinetic Renewable Energy Technology Database

Appendix C. Noise in the Aquatic Environment and its Effects on Aquatic Animals

Expressing Underwater Sounds

Noise Produced by Ocean Energy Technologies

Potential Effects of Noise on Aquatic Animals

Appendix D. Electromagnetic Fields in the Aquatic Environment and their Effects on Aquatic Animals

Nature of the Underwater Electromagnetic Field

Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Aquatic Organisms

Electrical Fields

Magnetic Fields

Chapter Sources

Index

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