Chapter
Special purpose and speciality synthetic rubbers
Butyl Rubbers (IIR–isobutylene isoprene rubber)
Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPM/EPDM)
Polychloroprene rubber (CR)
Silicone rubber (Q rubber)
Types of silicone polymers
Ethylene-vinyl Acetate copolymer (EVA)
Fluorocarbon rubber (FKM)
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM)
Polyurethane rubbers (PUR)
Polyacrylate rubbers (ACM)
Polysulfide rubber (T rubber)
1.2.1.3 Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE)
1.2.4.1 One-dimensional nanofiller
1.2.4.2 Two-dimensional nanofillers
1.2.4.3 Three-dimensional nanofillers
1.2.4.4 Reinforcing and non reinforcing fillers
1.2.5.2 Other processing aids
1.2.6.1 Accelerators based on chemical structures
1.2.6.2 Accelerators based on functional action
Sulfur donors (sulfur bearing chemicals)
1.2.8.4 Metal oxides curing
1.2.9 Special purpose additives
1.2.9.2 Silane coupling agents
1.2.9.3 Antistatic agents
1.3 Rubber processing equipments
1.3.1.3 Continuous mixers
1.3.2.1 Compression molding
1.3.2.3 Extrusion molding
1.4 Different vulcanization methods
1.5 Testing of compounded rubber
1.5.1 Processability of rubber compounds
1.5.2 Cure studies and viscosity
1.5.3 Mechanical properties of compounded rubber
1.5.3.1 Tensile and tear properties
1.5.3.2 Hardness (ASTM D 2240, ASTM D 1415)
1.5.3.4 Abrasion resistance (ASTM D 5963)
1.6 New trends in rubber compounding
1.7 Conclusion and future outlook
Reference and further reading
2 Micro- and nano-fillers used in the rubber industry
2.2.2 Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
2.2.3 Polyurethane rubber (PU)
2.2.4 Silicone rubber (SIR)
2.3 Fillers in the rubber industry
2.3.1.3 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
2.3.1.4 Graphene and graphite
2.3.2.1 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Halloysite nanotubes (HNT) and kaolinite
2.3.2.3 Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)
2.3.2.5 Other less frequently used particles
Alumina trihydrate (ATH, Al2O3·3H2O, or Al(OH)3)
Calcium sulfate (CaSO4·nH2O)
Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
2.3.3.3 Wood—lignin fiber
2.3.3.4 Coir—lignocellulosic fiber
2.4 Impact of particle features on composites properties
2.4.1 Particle size, aspect ratio, and surface area—shape parameter
2.4.2 Percolation threshold
2.4.3 Interfacial interactions
3 Mechanism of reinforcement using nanofillers in rubber nanocomposites
3.2 Reinforcing nanofillers for rubbers
3.2.1 Particulate or spherical fillers
3.2.2 Tubular filler: carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nanofibers
3.2.3 Layered filler: Nanoclay and graphitic nanofillers
3.2.4 Chemical and interface modification on nanofillers
3.3 Mechanism of rubber reinforcement by nanofillers
3.3.1 Percolation phenomena
3.3.2 Reinforcing mechanism under small deformation
3.3.3 Reinforcing mechanism under large deformation
4 Interphase characterization in rubber nanocomposites
4.1.2 Adsorption or wetting caused by van der Waals force
4.1.3 Electrolyte or hydrogen bonding
4.1.5 Interface and interphase (namely interfacial region)
4.1.6 Factors influencing interfacial interactions
4.2 Interphase characterization in rubber composites
4.2.1 Mechanical characterization
4.2.1.1 Static mechanical test (tension, compression, bending, indentation)
4.2.1.4 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of tension, compression, and bending modes
Other micro and nanoparticles
Hybrid composites containing more than one particle
4.2.1.5 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
4.2.2 Thermal characterization
4.2.2.1 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
4.2.2.2 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
4.2.3 Electron microscopy
4.2.3.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
4.2.3.2 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
4.2.3.3 Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)
4.2.4.1 Wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD)
4.2.4.2 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
4.2.4.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
4.3 Interfacial modification
4.3.3 Layered sheets intercalation
4.3.4 Natural fiber modification
5 Rubber nanocomposites with nanoclay as the filler
5.2 Nanoclay structure, chemical modification, and characterization
5.3 Type of rubbers and their characteristic properties
5.4 Preparation of rubber nanoclay composites
5.4.1 Nitrile rubber with organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT)
5.5 Manufacturing techniques
5.5.1 Two roll mill mixing
5.5.3 In situ polymerization
5.5.5 Supercritical CO2 assisted preparation
5.6 Nanocomposite structure and characterization of structure and morphology
5.6.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
5.6.2 Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)
5.6.3 Cure characteristics
5.7 Properties of nanocomposites
5.7.1 Mechanical properties
5.7.2 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)
5.7.3 Rheological properties
5.8 Conclusion and applications
6 Rubber nanocomposites with graphene as the nanofiller
6.2 Graphite, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene
6.2.1 Synthesis of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide
6.2.2 Synthesis of graphene
6.2.2.1 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
6.2.2.2 Thermal exfoliation
6.2.2.3 Mechanical exfoliation in solution
6.2.3 Different characterizations
6.2.3.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)
6.2.3.2 Raman spectroscopy
6.2.3.3 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
6.2.3.4 Microscopic analysis
6.2.4.1 Electrical property
6.2.4.3 Mechanical property
6.3 Graphene–rubber nanocomposites
6.3.1 Fabrication methods
6.3.1.1 Solution intercalation/latex blending
6.3.1.3 In situ polymerization
6.3.2.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)
6.3.2.4 Contact angle measurement
6.3.3 Mechanical properties
6.3.3.2 Dynamic-mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA)
6.3.4.1 Thermal degradation behavior
6.3.4.2 Thermal conductivity
6.3.5 Gas barrier properties
6.3.6 Electrical properties
6.3.6.1 Dielectric properties
6.3.6.2 Electrical conductivity
6.4 Conclusions and prospects
7 Rubber nanocomposites with polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) as the nanofiller
7.2 Structure & Synthesis of POSS
7.4 Properties of POSS-Nanocomposites
7.5 POSS as Structure Directing Component
8 Rubber nanocomposites with new core-shell metal oxides as nanofillers
8.2.1 Preparation of TiO2/SiO2 core-shell pigments
8.2.2 Preparation of rubber compounds
8.2.3 Bound rubber determination
8.2.4.1 Rheometric characteristics
8.2.4.2 Mechanical properties
8.2.4.4 Cross-linking density
8.2.4.6 Strain energy determination
8.2.4.7 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDAX)
8.2.4.8 Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
8.2.4.9 X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
8.2.4.10 FTIR spectroscopy
8.2.4.11 Dielectric measurements
8.3 Results and discussion
8.3.1 Characterization of the prepared pigments
8.3.2 Rheological properties
8.3.3 Dispersion of core-shell pigments in rubber matrix
8.3.4 Bound rubber and filler-to-rubber interactions in core shell (TiO2/SiO2) compounds
8.3.5 Mechanical properties
8.4.1 Morphology of rubber composites
8.4.1.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
8.4.1.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
8.4.2 Dielectric measurements dielectric measurements
9 Rubber nanocomposites with metal oxides as nanofillers
9.2 Preparation of metal oxide nanoparticles
9.2.1 Zinc oxide nanoparticle
9.2.2 Iron oxide nanoparticles
9.2.3 Zirconium oxide nanoparticle
9.2.4 Titanium oxide nanoparticle
9.2.5 Aluminum oxide nanoparticle
9.2.6 Magnesium oxide nanoparticle
9.3 Preparation and processing of rubber nanocomposites containing different metal oxide nanoparticles
9.4 Properties and applications of rubber nanocomposites filled with metal oxide nanoparticles
9.4.1 The effect of nanometal oxide on the curing behavior of elastomer nanocomposites
9.4.2 Properties and applications of aluminum oxide (Al2O3)-based rubber nanocomposites
9.4.3 Properties and application of titanium oxide (TiO2)-based rubber nanocomposites
9.4.4 Iron oxide (Fe3O4)-based rubber nanocomposites
9.4.5 Zirconium oxide (ZrO2)-based rubber nanocomposites
10 Rubber blend nanocomposites
10.1 Introduction to elastomers
10.1.1 Basic properties of elastomers
10.1.2 Types of elastomers
10.1.3 Advantages, applications, and limitations of some of the most commonly used elastomers
10.2 Rubber blends and composites
10.2.1 Techniques for preparing rubber blends
10.2.2 Some different types of trendy rubber blends
10.2.3 Types of fillers used for preparing rubber based composites
10.2.4 Typical properties of rubber based blends and composites
10.2.5 Advantages of blends and composites over pristine rubber
10.2.6 Formulations relating to blends and composites
10.2.7 Role of nanoparticles in compatibility and miscibility of blends
10.3 Importance of rubber blend nanocomposites
10.3.1 Various types of rubber blend nanocomposites
10.3.2 Properties of rubber blend nanocomposites over conventional rubber based blends and composites
10.3.3 Advanced applications of rubber blend nanocomposites
10.4 Summary and future scope
11 Hybrid filler systems in rubber nanocomposites
11.1.1 Objective and structure of the chapter
11.1.2 Hybrid filler systems?
11.1.3 Synergistic effects of different fillers on the properties of rubber composites
11.1.4 Self-assembly of nanofillers in rubber matrix
11.2 Nanocomposites based on organoclays and carbon black
11.2.1 Structure of OC–CB nanocomposites
11.2.1.1 OC organization in the rubber matrix
11.2.1.2 Lowest level of clay organization: stacking or exfoliation
11.2.1.3 Upper level of clay organization: distribution and dispersion of OC
11.2.1.5 Fractured surfaces
11.2.2 Affinity of OC for CB
11.2.2.1 The origin of the affinity of OC for CB
11.2.4 Mechanical reinforcement as a function of fillers’ features
11.2.5 Dynamic-mechanical properties
11.2.6 Tensile properties
11.2.8 Abrasion resistance
11.2.10 Thermal stability
11.2.11 Electrical properties
11.3 Nanocomposites based on CNT and carbon black
11.3.2.1 Crystallinity of carbon allotropes
11.3.2.2 Interaction of CNT with the rubber matrix
11.3.2.3 Distribution and dispersion of carbon allotropes
11.3.4.1 Crosslinking with peroxide
11.3.4.2 Crosslinking with sulfur based system
11.3.5 Dynamic-mechanical properties
11.3.6 Tensile properties
11.3.7 Fracture resistance
11.3.8 Abrasion resistance
11.3.9 Electrical properties
11.3.10 Thermal properties
11.4 Nanocomposites based on nanographite and carbon black
11.4.2.1 Crystalline organization of G in G/CB nanocomposites
11.4.5 Dynamic-mechanical properties
11.4.6 Tensile properties
11.4.7 Abrasion resistance
11.4.8 Thermal and electrical properties
11.5 Nanocomposites based on CNT and silica
11.5.3 Rheology and curing
11.5.4 Dynamic-mechanical properties
11.5.5 Tensile properties
11.5.6 Fracture resistance
11.5.8 Electrical properties
11.6 Rationalization of the mechanical reinforcement
11.7 Hybrid systems made by different nanofillers
11.8 Conclusions and perspectives
12 Manufacturing and Structure of Rubber Nanocomposites
12.1 A comment on rubber reinforcement by the nanofiller
12.2 Features of preparing the rubber composite by the soft processing method
12.3 Manufacturing by soft process and conventional mixing method
12.3.1 Preparation of in situ silica/rubber composites
12.3.1.1 Sulfur cross-linked composites
12.3.1.2 Peroxide cross-linked composites
12.3.2 Preparation of lignin/natural rubber biocomposite by the soft process from latex
12.3.3 Conventional mixing method for nanofiller/rubber composite and lignin/natural rubber biocomposite
12.3.3.1 Nanofiller/rubber composites
12.3.3.2 Lignin/natural rubber biocomposite
12.4 Comparison of mechanical properties of in situ silica and lignin composites from the two methods
12.4.1 Mechanical properties of particulate silica composites
12.4.1.1 Tensile properties
12.4.1.2 Dynamic mechanical properties
12.4.2 Mechanical properties of lignin biocomposites
12.5 Visualization of nanofiller dispersion in the three-dimensional space
12.6 Dispersion of silica and optical transparency of silica filled rubber
12.6.1 3D-TEM images of in situ silica and conventional silica
12.6.2 Optical transparency and silica network structure
12.7 Carbon black network structure and rubber reinforcement
12.7.1 Carbon black loaded nanocomposites
12.7.2 Structural variation with the increase of carbon black
12.7.3 Mixing law for a mechanistic elucidation of rubber reinforcement
13 Rubber nanocomposites with nanocellulose
13.1 Introduction: the importance of rubber/nanocellulose composites
13.2 Different nanocellulose materials
13.3 Preparation of rubber/nanocellulose composites
13.4 Major techniques used for characterizing rubber nanocomposites
13.5 Structure and properties of different rubber nanocomposites with nanocellulose
13.5.2 Natural rubber and epoxidized natural rubber
13.5.3 Natural rubber and polybutadiene rubber
13.5.4 Natural rubber and ethylene propylene diene methylene rubber
13.5.5 Styrene-butadiene rubber with nanocellulose and clay
13.5.6 Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber and carboxylated acrylonitrile butadiene rubber
14 Thermal conductivity and dielectric properties of silicone rubber nanocomposites
14.2 Thermal conductivity of silicone rubber nanocomposites
14.2.1 Experiment procedure
14.2.2 Effect on erosion resistance
14.2.3 Effect on thermal dissipation
14.3 Surface charge of direct-fluorinated silicone rubber nanocomposites and its effect on DC flashover characteristics
14.3.1 Experiment procedure
14.3.2 Effect on chemical composition
14.3.3.1 Effect of fluorination time
14.3.3.2 Effect of mass fraction of nanoparticle
14.4 Tree characteristics in silicone rubber/SiO2 nanocomposites
14.4.1 Experiment procedure
14.4.3 Tree structure and growth characteristics
14.4.4 Effect of nanoparticle
14.4.5 Effect of temperature
15 Computational simulation in elastomer nanocomposites
15.1 Computer simulation techniques
15.2 Dispersion of NPs: structure and phase behavior
15.3 Interfacial chain structure and dynamics between elastomer and NPs
15.4 Static and dynamic mechanics of ENCs
15.5 Thermal and electrical conductivity of ENCs
15.6 Future simulation opportunities and challenges
Progress in Rubber Nanocomposites
( Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering )
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