Front Cover

Investigating Seafloors and Oceans: From Mud Volcanoes to Giant Squid

Copyright

Dedication

Contents

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: The Chaotic and Vibrant Seafloor

1.1. Introduction

1.1.1. Exposed Oceanic Mantle

1.1.2. Reversal of Earths Magnetic Field

1.1.3. Consequences of Earths Magnetic Field Reversal

1.2. Discovery of Formation of Different Continents from One Big Land Mass

1.2.1. Clues Introduced by Ortelius, Suess, Mantovani, Wegener, and Toit

1.2.2. Hypotheses Proposed for Explaining Continental Drift

1.2.3. Arthur Holmess Proposal of Convection Current Cells in Earths Mantle in Support of Continental Drift

1.2.4. Studies of Earthquakes and Mountain Building in Support of Continental Drift

1.3. Evolving the Notion of Tectonic Plates Floating on Molten Lava

1.3.1. Discovery of Volcanic Ridge Systems Snaking Around the Globe in a Chain

1.3.2. Discoveries of Zebra Stripe-like Magnetic Patterns and Increasing Age of Seafloor with Distance From Ridge Crests

1.3.3. Proposal of Seafloor Spreading Theory—Contribution by Hess

1.3.4. Plate Tectonics—Unification of Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading

1.4. Triple Junctions on Seafloors

1.4.1. R-R-R Triple Junctions

1.4.1.1. Afar triple junction

1.4.1.2. Rodrigues triple junction

1.4.1.3. Azores triple junction

1.4.2. The Only Known T-T-T Junction on Earth-Boso Triple Junction

1.4.3. Difficult-to-Classify Triple Junction-Bouvet Triple Junction

1.4.4. Specialty of Chile Triple Junction

1.5. Rotating Microplates

1.5.1. Clockwork Motion by Seafloor Microplates

1.5.2. The 2015 Discovery of the First Oceanic Microplate in the Indian Ocean

1.6. Formation of Submarine Mountain Chains, Seamounts, Island Arcs, Mud Volcanoes, Canyons, and Trenches

1.6.1. Seafloor Mountain Chains

1.6.2. Seamounts

1.6.3. Submarine Magmatic-Volcanic Eruptions and Island Arcs

1.6.4. Magmatic Volcanoes Versus Mud Volcanoes

1.6.4.1. Seafloor mud volcanoes and cold-seep communities

1.6.4.2. Island mud volcanoes

1.6.4.3. Coastal mud volcanoes

1.6.5. Submarine Canyons

1.6.6. Subduction Zones and Submarine Trenches

References

Bibliography

Chapter 2: Secrets of Bermuda Triangle and Formation of Polymetallic Nodules

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Riddle of the Bermuda Triangle Imbroglio

2.2.1. Fire in the Sea

2.2.2. Trawler Wreck in Witchs Hole Pockmark

2.2.3. Methane Hydrates and the Bermuda Triangle

2.2.4. The Role of Warm Gulf Stream

2.3. Gas Hydrate Emission Can Drown Ships-Mays and Monaghans Hypothesis

2.3.1. Laboratory Scale Experimental Studies

2.3.2. Numerical Simulations

2.3.3. Criteria for Sinking/NonSinking

2.4. Carpet of ``Dark Gold´´ Paved Over the Seafloor

2.4.1. Devices Used for Collection of Polymetallic Nodules From the Ocean Floor

2.4.1.1. Boomerang Grab

2.4.1.2. Dredge

2.4.1.3. Box-Corer

2.4.1.4. Vibro-Corer

2.4.2. Specialty and Structure of Nodules

2.4.3. Factors Influencing Nodule Formation

2.4.4. Nucleating Materials

2.4.5. Morphological Parameters

2.4.5.1. Shape of Nodules

2.4.5.2. Surface Texture

2.4.6. Internal Features of Nodules

2.4.6.1. Thickness of Oxide Layer in Nodules

2.4.6.2. Internal Microstructure of Nodules

2.4.7. Chemical Composition of Nodules

2.4.8. Role of Micro-Organisms in the Formation of Nodules

2.4.9. Buried Nodules

2.4.10. Rare Earth Elements in Nodules

2.4.11. Distribution of Nodules in the World Oceans

References

Bibliography

Chapter 3: Complex Wave Motions and Thermal Structure of the Oceans

3.1. Riddle of the Biblical Crossing of the Red Sea by Israelites Led by Moses

3.1.1. The Biblical Story

3.1.2. In Search of Scientific Explanations to the Vexed Question

3.2. Invisible Colossal Waves Below Sea Surface-Internal Waves

3.2.1. Early History of Internal Wave Observations and Studies

3.2.2. Internal Wave-Induced Hazards

3.2.3. Similarities and Dissimilarities Between Surface Waves and Internal Waves

3.2.4. Peculiarities of Solitary Waves

3.2.5. Observations of Solitary Internal Wave Packets

3.2.6. Internal Waves-Roles of Seafloor Obstacles and Currents

3.2.7. Measurement of Internal Waves and Internal Solitary Waves

3.2.7.1. In Situ Measurements

3.2.7.2. Remote Measurements

3.2.8. International Efforts in the Study of Internal Waves

3.2.9. Climatologic and Ecological Benefits of Internal Waves

3.2.9.1. Climatologic Benefits

3.2.9.2. Ecological Benefits

3.3. Intricate Tidal Motions in Topographically Complex Water Bodies

3.3.1. General Characteristics of Tidal Oscillations

3.3.2. Topographical Influences on Tidal Range and Tidal Pattern

3.3.3. Wall of Tumbling and Foaming Water Waves—Tidal Bore

3.3.3.1. Story of Tidal Bores

3.3.3.2. Thundering Noise of Tidal Bores

3.3.3.3. Geomorphological Consequences of Tidal Bores

3.3.3.4. Generation and Propagation Mechanisms of Tidal Bores

3.3.3.5. Qiantang Bore—Most Spectacular Bore in the World

3.3.4. Apparent Phase Reversal of Tide Wave Over Short Distance and Its Consequences

3.3.5. Ocean Basins Experiencing No Tidal Motions—Amphitrophic Zones

3.3.6. Implications of Coastal Tides and Tidal Bores

3.4. Subsurface Warm Water Layer Sandwiched Between Colder Waters Above and Below—Thermal Inversion

3.4.1. Prominent Thermal Inversion Zones in the World Oceans

3.4.2. Temperature Inversion Formation Mechanisms

3.4.2.1. Freshwater Influx

3.4.2.2. Sea Surface Cooling

3.4.2.3. Horizontal Advection

3.4.2.3.1. Thermohaline Driving

3.4.2.3.2. Wind Driving

3.4.3. Climatic Impact of Oceanic Temperature Inversion

References

Bibliography

Chapter 4: The Role of Oceans in the Origin of Life and in Biological Evolution

4.1. Introduction

4.1.1. Origin of Single-Cell Organisms in Oceans

4.1.2. Extinction Events That Affected Life on Earth

4.1.3. Recent Discovery of Clue to Life on Earth At Least 4.1 Billion Years Ago

4.1.4. Understanding the Complexities of Seafloors and Oceans

4.2. Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection

4.2.1. Darwin's Visit to the Galapagos Islands

4.2.2. Shaping Darwin's New World View—Inspiration From Marine Iguanas

4.3. Subseafloor Microbial Life—Partial Clues to the Origin of Life

4.4. Organisms Living Above 100C Under Anaerobic Conditions

4.4.1. Bacteria Living in Deep Subseafloor Sediments

4.4.2. Bacteria Living in Submarine Hydrothermal Areas

4.4.3. Bacteria Living in Submarine Volcanoes

4.5. Microbial Activity in Hydrothermal Fluids—The ``Zinc World´´ Hypothesis

4.6. Significance of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents

4.7. Homochirality of Amino Acids and Sugars

4.7.1. DNA and RNA

4.7.2. tRNA and mRNA

4.7.3. DNA Versus RNA in Terms of Identifying Live Cells

4.7.4. Nucleotides

4.7.5. The ``RNA World´´ Hypothesis

4.7.5.1. ``Chicken-or-the-Egg´´ Dilemma

4.7.5.2. Objections to the ``RNA World´´ Hypothesis

4.7.5.3. Proto-RNA and Flexible Nucleic Acid

4.7.5.4. The ``Peptide-RNA World´´ Hypothesis

4.7.5.5. Riboswitches and the ``RNA World´´

4.8. The 2015 Discovery of a Missing Piece of the Evolution Puzzle—Lokiarchaeota

4.9. The 2015 Discovery of a New Homo Genus Species

References

Bibliography

Chapter 5: Astronomical and Biological Organizational Relationships

5.1. Fundamental Discoveries in Astronomical and Cosmological Sciences

5.1.1. Discovering the Theory of Sun-Centric Model of Solar System

5.1.2. Propounding the Idea of an Infinite and Homogeneous Universe and Cosmic Pluralism

5.1.3. Discovering Fundamental Laws of Planetary Motion

5.1.4. Advancing Astronomy by Construction of the Telescope

5.1.5. Discovering Laws of Motion and Universal Law of Gravitation

5.1.6. Discovering Theories of Relativity

5.1.7. Discovery of Galaxies Moving Away From Earth

5.1.8. Shedding New Light on the Working of the Universe

5.1.9. Proposing a Linear Relationship Between a Galaxy's Distance and its Redshift

5.1.10. Propounding the Notion of an Expanding Universe

5.1.11. Eddington's Efforts in Making Scientific Theories Beyond Linguistic Barriers

5.1.12. Big Bang Theory on the Origin of the Universe

5.1.13. Predictions of Cosmic Background Radiation

5.1.14. Discovery of Cosmic Background Radiation in Support of the Big Bang Theory

5.1.15. Discovery of Cepheid Variables

5.2. Chemical Evolution Leading to the Origin of Life—Role of Primitive Oceans

5.3. Partial Clues to Origin of Life in Submarine Hydrothermal Vents

5.4. Chemical Evolution of Life-Supporting Structures

5.4.1. Amino Acids

5.4.2. Miller-Urey ``Prebiotic Soup´´ Experiment

5.5. Origin of Life

5.5.1. Probable Specialties of the Earliest Living Systems

5.5.2. Two Opposing Views on Origin of Life

5.6. Gene and Genetic Code

5.7. Horizontal Gene Transfer: A Story of Genetic Success

5.8. Safeguarding Genetic Information: The 2015 Nobel Prize Winning Discovery

5.9. Correlation Between Biological and Astronomical Organizations: Kumar's Hypothesis

5.9.1. Functional Resemblance Between DNA and Astronomy

5.9.2. Mathematical Relationships Among Codons in the Genetic Code, Amino Acids, and the Astro-Molecular Constant

5.9.3. Functional Resemblance Between Cells and Astronomy

5.9.4. Microcosm and Macrocosm

5.10. Biological Evolution: The Role of Islands

5.11. Discoveries in Life Science: Cloning by Nuclear Transfer

5.11.1. Cloning Technique

5.11.2. Ethical Objections to Cloning

5.11.3. Positive Attributions of Cloning

5.11.3.1. Creation of valuable pharmaceutical products and cures for genetic diseases

5.11.3.2. Genetic modification of pigs for organ transplantation into humans

5.11.3.3. Preserving endangered species

5.12. Self-Organization in the Origin of the Universe and Biological Evolution

5.13. How Life Originated: A Puzzle to be Resolved

5.14. Religious Beliefs and Science

References

Bibliography

Chapter 6: Seafloor Hot Chimneys and Cold Seeps: Mysterious Life Around Them

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Formation of Hydrothermal Vents

6.3. Tectonic and Magmatic Controls on Hydrothermal Activity

6.3.1. Hydrothermal Venting in Magma Deserts

6.3.2. Hydrothermal Activity on Near-Arc Sections of Back-Arc Ridges

6.3.3. Subduction Zone Venting: A Unique Type of Venting Process

6.4. Serpentinization: An Important Set of Geochemical Reactions

6.5. Vent Fluid Composition and Temperature

6.5.1. Black Smoker and White Smoker Venting

6.5.2. Gas Emission

6.5.3. Particle Emission

6.5.4. Manganese and Sulfide Deposition

6.5.5. Cold Vent

6.6. Shallow Water Hydrothermal Activity

6.7. Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Activity

6.8. Iron Domination and Potential for Microbial Carbon Fixation: Loihi Plume

6.9. Biological Significances of Submarine Hydrothermal Vents

6.9.1. Chemosynthesis

6.9.2. Anaerobic Methane Oxidation

6.9.3. Creatures Devoid of Eyes, Mouth, Intestine

6.9.4. Exotic World of Diverse Biological Communities Around Seafloor Geysers

6.9.5. Role of Vent Flow on Selective Dominance of Species

6.9.6. Endemism Among Hydrothermal Biological Communities

6.9.7. Distinct Biogeographic Provinces With Quite Different Vent Populations

6.9.8. Factors Controlling Biogeography of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Species

6.9.9. Communication between Vent Fauna in the Atlantic, Indian, and Western Pacific Oceans

6.10. Unique Thermostable Enzymes in Hydrothermal Vent Worm

6.11. Exotic World of Marine Organisms Around Cold Seeps

6.12. Understanding the History of Benthic Organisms and Their Source of Food

6.13. Technologies Used for Hydrothermal Vents Studies

6.13.1. Underwater Cameras and Biogeochemical Sampling Devices

6.13.2. ROVs, AUVs, and Manned Submersibles

6.13.3. Seafloor-Mounted Monitoring Devices

6.13.4. Special Sampling Systems

6.13.5. Turbidity Measuring Device for Detecting Hydrothermal Plumes

6.14. Conclusions

References

Bibliography

Chapter 7: Citadel-Building: Tiny Creatures in the Oceans—Corals

7.1. Introduction

7.1.1. Corals and Coral Reefs

7.1.2. Coral Reefs—Abode of a Multitude of Colorful and Amazing Creatures

7.1.3. Darwin's Paradox

7.1.4. Role of Seamounts on Reef-Building

7.1.5. Artificial Reefs Built on Offshore Structures (Platforms and Wrecked Ships)

7.2. Coral Reefs and the Exotic Life on and Around Them

7.2.1. Corals

7.2.2. New Family of Atlantic Corals

7.2.3. Mesophotic Coral Reef Ecosystems

7.2.4. Deep-Water Corals

7.3. Coral Survey Techniques

7.3.1. Photography and Video Shooting During Scuba Diving

7.3.2. Monitoring Using Submersibles

7.3.3. Video-Mapping Using Air-Borne Imaging Devices

7.3.4. Software-Driven Mapping System

7.3.5. High-Resolution Acoustic Technologies and Pixel Amplitude Analysis of Backscatter Images

7.3.6. Coral-Bed Classification System—A Hydro-Acoustic Remote Sensing Tool

7.3.7. Satellites and Computerized Expert Systems to Monitor Coral Reefs

7.4. Threat to Coral Reefs

7.4.1. Increase in Seawater Temperature

7.4.2. Seawater Contamination by Toxic Microscopic Plants

7.4.3. Predation

7.4.4. Coral Collection for Trade

7.4.5. Human Activities

7.4.6. Ocean Acidification

7.4.6.1. Effect on Ocean pH

7.4.6.2. Acidification due to Anthropogenic Factors

7.4.6.3. Acidification due to Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

7.4.6.4. Acidification Through Submarine Springs

7.4.7. Damage from Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Dredging

7.5. Need for Conservation and Restoration of Coral Reefs

7.6. Ocean Acidification-Resistant Coral Reefs

7.7. Role of Tiny Crabs in Preventing Coral Death in South Pacific

7.8. Ancient Coral Reef Record Gives History of El Niño

7.9. Importance of Coral Reef Research and Management

7.10. An Experimental Platform for Direct Microscopic Study of Live Coral Polyps

7.10.1. Micro-Propagation of Coral Polyps

7.10.2. The ``Coral-on-a-Chip´´ Microfluidic System

7.10.3. In Vivo Imaging of Calcification and Skeleton-Genesis

7.10.4. Specialty of ``Coral-on-a-Chip´´ Microfluidic System

References

Bibliography

Chapter 8: Marine Creatures With a Difference

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Light-Capturing Pigment in Microscopic Marine Bacteria

8.3. Marine Organisms That Carry Living Light

8.3.1. Blue Light-Beaming Ostracods

8.3.2. Luminous Deep-Sea Sharks: Lantern Sharks and Kitefin Sharks

8.3.3. Precious Molecule From Jellyfish: Nobel Prize-Winning Discovery

8.3.3.1. Beginning of a Long Journey to a Great Discovery

8.3.3.2. Role of Green Fluorescent Protein in Revolutionizing Medical Research

8.3.3.3. Misfortune to a Significant Contributor in the Nobel Prize-Winning Discovery

8.4. Fishes That Play Hide and Seek

8.5. Marine Creatures That Mimic

8.6. Gelatinous Creatures

8.6.1. Bumpy Jellyfish in Deep Sea

8.6.2. Box Jellyfish: Highly Venomous Mysterious Creature

8.6.2.1. Chironex fleckeri Species

8.6.2.2. Irukandji Species and Irukandji Syndrome

8.6.2.3. Treatment for Box Jellyfish Sting Victims

8.6.3. Ecosystem Impact of Jellyfish Explosion

8.7. Lionfish: Decimator of Fish Populations and Threat to Coral Reef Ecosystems

8.8. Deep-Sea Vampire Squid: Thriving in the Oxygen Minimum Zone

8.9. Giant Squid and Colossal Squid

8.9.1. Giant Squid

8.9.2. Colossal Squid

8.10. Life at Submarine Canyons and Deep-Sea Trenches

8.11. Dead Whales: Providing Deep-Sea Living Legacy

References

Bibliography

Chapter 9: Oceans: Abode of Nutraceuticals, Pharmaceuticals, and Biotoxins

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Nutraceutical Products From Marine Flora and Fauna

9.2.1. Nutraceuticals From Marine Flora

9.2.1.1. Valuable Products From Brown, Blue, Green, Blue-Green, and Red Algae

9.2.1.2. Spirulina: Blue-Green Alga Which Provides Quick Energy and Nourishment

9.2.1.3. Commercial Production of Spirulina

9.2.2. Nutraceutical Products From Marine Fauna

9.3. Pharmaceutical Products From Marine Flora and Fauna

9.3.1. History of the Use of Marine Resources in Traditional Medicines

9.3.1.1. Horseshoe Crabs

9.3.1.2. Sea Horses

9.3.1.3. Jellyfish

9.3.1.4. Green Mussels

9.3.1.5. Seaweeds

9.3.1.6. Sea Cucumbers

9.3.2. Biomedical Potential of Marine Natural Products

9.3.3. Importance of Marine Invertebrates and Microorganisms in Drug Production

9.3.4. Marine Natural Products Used as Anticancer Drugs

9.3.4.1. Primary and Metastatic Cancers

9.3.4.2. Modern Technologies Used for Cancer Detection

9.3.4.3. Treatments Used Against Cancer

9.3.4.4. Anticancer Drugs of Marine Origin

9.3.5. Anticancer Drugs Produced by Marine Sponges

9.3.5.1. Marine Sponge Alkaloids

9.3.5.2. Discodermolides

9.3.6. Anticancer Drugs Produced From Tunicates

9.3.6.1. Ecteinascidins

9.3.6.2. Didemnins

9.3.6.3. Aplidin(e)

9.3.7. Anticancer Drug—Kahalalide—Produced From Molluscs

9.3.8. Anticancer Drugs—Dolastatins—Produced by Marine Shell-Less Mollusk

9.3.9. Bioactive Products From Marine Bacteria and Fungi

9.3.9.1. Bioactive Natural Products From Marine Bacteria

9.3.9.2. Bioactive Products From Marine Cyanobacteria

9.3.9.3. Bioactive Natural Products From Marine Fungi

9.3.10. Trends in the Success of Drug Discovery From Marine Natural Products

9.4. Immunotoxins and Biotoxins in Marine Flora and Fauna

9.4.1. Immunotoxins From Fungi

9.4.2. Biotoxins in Algal Blooms

9.4.3. Effects of Saxitoxin on Human and Environmental Health

9.4.4. Neurotoxin-Induced Sporadic Mass Mortalities of Marine Animals, Fish, and Birds

9.5. Detection of Marine Biotoxins in Seafood

9.6. Conclusions

References

Bibliography

Chapter 10: Magic With Colors—Sea Surface Changes

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Phytoplankton Bloom: Sea Surface Turning Green

10.2.1. Impacts of El Niño-Warming and La Niña-Cooling Events on Chlorophyll Levels and Plant Life in the Oceans

10.2.2. Iron Fertilization: Maintaining Healthy Planktonic Biomass Distribution in the Oceans

10.2.3. Fluorescence Emission by Phytoplankton

10.2.4. Release of Dimethyl Sulfide Gas by Phytoplankton: Role in Countering Global Warming

10.2.5. Release of Iodine Vapors from Plankton and Algae: Countering Global Warming

10.2.6. Phytoplankton and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels

10.3. Trichodesmium Bloom: Turning Sea Surface Brown

10.3.1. Characteristics of Trichodesmium Bloom

10.3.2. Remote Detection of Trichodesmium Bloom

10.4. Coccolithophore Bloom: Turning Sea Surface Milky White

References

Bibliography

Index

Back Cover