Cover

Detailed Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Reference

Part I - Introduction and Overview

Chapter 1 - The Research Process: Of Big Pictures, Little Details, and the Social Psychological Road in between

The Research Process

The Starting Point: The Phenomena

The Research Question

To Whom does the Question Apply?

Operationalizations and Design

Can We Answer the Question?

Organization of This Handbook

Organizing Principles

Specific Organization

Part II: Fundamental Issues in Social Psychological Research

Part III: Design and Analysis

Part IV: Emerging Interdisciplinary Approaches

Part V: The Application of Social Psychology and Its Methods to Other Domains

Conclusion

References

Part II - Fundamental Issues in Social Psychological Research

Chapter 2 - The Methodological Assumptions of Social Psychology: The Mutual Dependence of Substantive Theory and Method Choice

Introduction

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The Types of Theory That Social Psychologists Construct

The Theory-Hypothesis Link

Form of Data Collection

The Dual Hegemony of Anova and the Laboratory Experiment

Specific Theoretical Concerns and Their Methodological Implications

The Social Cognitive Revolution

The Relative Neglect of Theories of Interpersonal Dynamics

The Neglect of High-Impact Manipulations and the Kinds of Theory They Promote

The Average Person as the Locus of Explanation

The Assumption of Irrelevant Domains and Hence the Generation of Theories with Minimal Grounded Content

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3 - Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Research

Chapter Overview

The Evolution of Ethical Debate and Regulation in Social Psychology

Governmental Regulations for Behavioral Research in the United States

Professional Ethical Standards

Ethical Dilemmas in Social Psychological Research

Defining "Ethics," "Morality," and "Ethical Dilemma"

Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Laboratory, Field, and Applied Research

Laboratory Research Issues

Field Research Issues

Privacy

Informed Consent

Social Psychology Research and the Internet

Applied Research Issues

Ethical Safeguards and Institutional Review

Debriefing and Other Safeguards

Institutional Review

Impact and Effectiveness of the Review Process

Conclusion: Ethical Challenges and Opportunities

References

Chapter 4 - Developing a Program of Research

Start by Knowing That Many Perspectives are not Yet Represented

Compelling, Coherent Hypotheses: What's the Big Picture?

Intellectual Sources

Personal Sources

Group Sources

Worldview Sources

General Principles, Regardless of Source

Convincing Research: Read This Book

Readable Write-Ups Readers will Read

Outlets: Visible and Invisible

Programmatic Approach: Follow Your Bliss

Collaboration: Beside Every Good Researcher Stands a Team

Teaching: A Piece of the Research Enterprise

Funding: Aha! Plus . . .

Service: Giving It Away

Conclusion: From Madness to the Methods

References

Part III - Design and Analysis

Section A. Implications of a Heterogeneous Population: Deciding for Whom to Test the Research Question(s), Why, and How

Chapter 5 - Culturally Sensitive Research Questions and Methods in Social Psychology

Downplaying of Cultural Issues in Social Psychology

Key Reasons for Downplaying of Culture

Culture-Free Approach to Situations

Physical Science Ideals of Explanation

Apparent Universality and Explanatory Breadth of Psychological Theories

Disappointment with Recent Cultural Traditions of Research

Conceptual Issues in Giving More Attention to Culture

Views of Culture

Integrating Cultural Considerations with Situational and Person Factors

Methodological Strategies for Enhancing Cultural Sensitivity

Cultural Understanding

Sampling

Noncomparative "Prototypic" Sampling Strategies

Noncomparative Cultural Sampling Strategies

Comparative Cultural Sampling Strategies

Representativeness and Equivalence in Sampling

Culture as Process

Culturally Appropriate Measures

Conclusions

Notes

References

Chapter 6 - Individual Differences in Social Psychology: Understanding Situations to Understand People, Understanding People to Understand Situations

Why Stable Individual Differences Need to be Taken into Account

Lewin's Equation, B = f(P, E)

P = An Individual's Dynamic Social Information Processing System: An Example

Studying Person × Situation Interactions

What Individual Differences?

Individual Differences That Interact with Situations

Processing Dynamics Type and Diagnostic Situations

Types of Person Variables That Affect Processing Dynamics

Interactions May Involve Highly Content-Specific Person and Situation Characteristics

Going beyond the Bandwidth-Fidelity Trade-off

Behavioral Signatures of Person Types Guide an Inductive Approach to Discovering Individual Difference Constructs

Methodological Challenges for Intensive within-Subject Analyses

Finding, Evaluating, and Using Measures of Individual Differences

What Makes a "Good" Measure: The Intertwined Nature of Reliability and Validity

Bootstrapping Upward in the Evolution of Constructs, Theories, and Measures

An Example of Construct Validation Research: The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix

Construct Validation of Individual Differences Measures via Experiments

A Valid Measure has been Found! What Should We do with It? Implications for Data Analysis and Experimental Design

Continuous or Categorical? It can Matter

To Block or not to Block on Individual Difference Measures?

Recasting the Problem: Going beyond Individual Differences as a Poor Person's Substitute for an Experiment

Understanding the Effects of Situations for Each Person First

Trading Instant Generalizability for Ultimate Generalizability: The Implications of a Person- and Type-Centered, More Inductive, Approach

Concluding Thoughts: Understanding Situations to Understand People, Understanding People to Understand Situations

Notes

References

Section B. Operationalizing the Constructs: Deciding What to Measure, Why, and How

Chapter 7 - Constructing and Evaluating Quantitative Measures for Social Psychological Research: Conceptual Challenges and Methodological Solutions

Defining Quantitative Measures

Stages in Constructing Quantitative Measures

Specifying Measurement Goals and Theoretical Assumptions

Specifying One's Goals for the Measure

Specifying Theoretical Assumptions

Item Generation

Creating Items

Item Content and Wording

Number of Items

Response Scale Format

Response Option Order and Item Order

Traditional Scaling Procedures for Item Generation

Thurstone Equal-Appearing Intervals

Likert Summated Ratings

Semantic Differentials

Item Evaluation and Selection

Judge Ratings

Between-Group Differentiation

Item Descriptive Statistics

Item-Total Correlations

Factor Analysis

Item Response Theory

Evaluating Measure Quality

Reliability

Internal Consistency

Stability (Test-Retest)

Validity

"Associative" and "Dissociative" Forms of Validity Evidence

Associative Forms of Validity

Dissociative Forms of Validity

The MTMM Approach

Beyond Self-Report Measures

Notes

References

Chapter 8 - Measures and Meanings: The Use of Qualitative Data in Social and Personality Psychology

Qualitative Data in Social Psychology: An Empirical Example

Advantages of Asking Open-Ended Questions

Qualitative Data may Answer Many Questions at Once

Qualitative Data Allow Us to Measure What isn't Said or can't be Said

Qualitative Data Give Us the Flavor of the Whole

Qualitative Data are (Relatively) Timeless

Methods of Qualitative Research

Participant Selection and Recruitment

Deciding What Questions to Ask and How to Ask Them

Coding the Data

Extant Coding Schemes

Creating New Coding Schemes

Using Naïve Coders

The Training Phase

The Coding Phase

Naïve Coders and the Bottom-up Approach

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Validity

Additional Challenges of Using Qualitative Data in Social Psychology

Methodological Problems and Confounds

Losing the Trees for the Forest

Special Ethical Considerations

New Approaches to Quantifying Qualitative Data

Conclusion

References

Chapter 9 - Implicit Methods in Social Psychology

The Psychodynamic Heritage

Projective Tests

The Subtle and the Obvious

The Priming Solution

The Importance of Matching Tasks

Priming as a Measure of Implicit Attitudes

Critique of Priming

The Implicit Association Test

The IAT as a Psychometric Device

Critique of the IAT

The Unobtrusive, the Automatic, the Implicit—and the Psychologist's Fallacy

Notes

References

Chapter 10 - Mediated and Moderated Effects in Social Psychological Research: Measurement, Design, and Analysis Issues

Measurement Issues

Practical Benefits of Theory

Formally Designating the Status of Variables in a Model

An Example

Optimal Measurement

Design Issues

Asserting Causal Priority

Timing and Tests of Mediation

Experimental Designs

Analysis Issues

Analysis Issues Specific to Mediation

Analysis Issues Specific to Moderation

Stumbling Blocks

Ambiguous Theory

One-Shot Data

Limited Sample Size

Limited Number of Indicators

Conclusion

References

Section C. Research Designs: Deciding the Specific Approach for Testing the Research Question(s), Why, and How

Chapter 11 - Experimental Design and Causality in Social Psychology Research

Introduction

Designing Controlled Experiments: The Aims and Structure of This Chapter

Why and When Should We do Experiments?

The Logic of Experiments

Replication

Identifying Plausible Confounds

Multiple Factors

When not to Conduct Experiments

Experimental Components

Independent Variables (TVs)

Randomization

Theoretical Relevance

Manipulation Checks

Between- and within-Subjects Designs

Dependent Variables (DVs)

Scale Construction

The Relevance-Sensitivity Trade-off

The Experimental Sample

Representativeness

The Importance of Theory

Using Specialized Samples

Experimental Assembly

Threats to Internal Validity

Dealing with Confounds

Uncertainty Management

Ruling out Alternative Hypotheses: Dealing with Specific Threats to Internal Validity

Maturation Effects

History Effects

Experiment Effects

Sample Effects

Experimental Control

Threats to External Validity

Reactivity

Artificiality

Inferring Causal Relationships from Experimental Research

Lessons from the Social Psychology of Causal Inference

Detecting Covariation

Beyond Covariation

Mediational Analysis

The Logic of Mediation

Problems of Interpretation

Conclusion

Note

References

Chapter 12 - Quasi-Experimental and Correlational Designs: Methods for the Real World When Random Assignment isn't Feasible

Quasi-Experimental Designs: An Overview

A Counterfactual Conception of Causality

From the Concept of Causality to Kinds of Comparisons

Comparisons across Time

The One-Group, Pretest-Posttest Design

Interrupted Time-Series Designs

Interrupted Time-Series Designs with a Control Group

Analysis of Interrupted Time-Series Designs

Comparisons across Groups

The Regression-Discontinuity Design

Nonequivalent Group Designs

Analysis of the Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Group Design

The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Group Design with Separate Pretest and Posttest Samples

Complex Nonequivalent Group Designs

Summary

Correlational Designs

Threats to the Validity of Correlational Designs

The Analysis of Data From Correlational Designs

Beyond Individual Studies: Research Programs, Lines of Research, and Research Syntheses

Conclusions

Design Matters

But Design is not Everything

The Pattern of Observed Effects Also Matters

Recognizing and Reporting Threats to Validity Matters too

Finally, Social Psychologists Should not be One-Trick Ponies

References

Chapter 13 - Within-Subject and Longitudinal Experiments: Design and Analysis Issues

Perspectives on Causal Inference

Three Design Elements

Basic within-Subject Design

Unit Homogeneity

Randomization

within-Subject Experiments

Approaches to Controlling for Order of Treatment Conditions

Random Ordering

Counterbalancing

Latin Square Designs

Randomized Matched Designs (Predictor Sort Designs)

Moderator Effects

Mediation

Summary and Conclusions

Longitudinal Experiments

Threats to Causal Inference

Attrition

SUTVA

Some Longitudinal Experimental Designs

Pre-Post Randomized Experiment

Solomon Four-Group Design

Multiwave Longitudinal Experiment

Analysis Approaches: Traditional and Modern

Univariate Analysis of Variance

Three Possible Improvements to the Univariate Analysis of Variance Approach

Correction of p Values

Multivariate Approach

Contrast Approach

Growth Models

Extensions

Mediation

Summary and Conclusions

Final Conclusion

Notes

References

Chapter 14 - Measuring Individuals in a Social Environment: Conceptualizing Dyadic and Group Interaction

Non-Independence and Interdependence

The Intraclass Correlation

Graphical Representation of the Intraclass Correlation

Individual and Group Effects: One is not Enough

The Use of Dyad Means as Indicators of Shared Variance

Influence and Interaction: A Model of Interdependence

Hierarchical Linear Modeling: Same Old Story or a New Perspective?

Morals

References

Chapter 15 - Quantitative Research Synthesis: Examining Study Outcomes over Settings, Samples, and Time

Uses for Quantitative Research Synthesis

Evaluating Existing Theories

Testing Novel Hypotheses

Procedures in Conducting a Research Synthesis

Determining if You have Enough Studies

Defining the Problem, Variables, and Sample

Locating Relevant Studies

Forming the Meta-Analytic Database

Coding Study Features

Selecting Computer Programs to Calculate and Analyze Effect Sizes

Calculating Effect Sizes

Problems (and Solutions) When Calculating Effect Sizes

Independence of Observations

Complex Primary Study Designs

Correcting for Effect Size Bias

Strategies for Nonreported Results

Analyzing Meta-Analytic Data

Step 1: Choosing a Model

Step 2: Estimating Means and Variability

Step 3: Investigating Possible Moderators

Step 4: Reporting Findings

Drawing Conclusions from Meta-Analyses

Interpreting Effect-Size Statistics

The Impact of Synthesis Findings and the Future of Research Synthesis

Notes

References

Part IV - Emerging Interdisciplinary Approaches: The Integration of Social Psychology and Other Disciplines

Chapter 16 - Methodological and Ethical Issues in Conducting Social Psychology Research via the Internet

Minimum Requirements for Online Experimenting

Potential Advantages of Research via the WWW

Examples of Recruiting and Testing Participants via the Internet

Recruitment Method and Sample Characteristics

Demographics

Web Participants do not Represent a Population

Effect of Diversity on Power and Generality

Experimental Control, Measurement, and Observation

Two Procedures for Holding an Exam

Precision of Manipulations and Measurements

The Need for Pilot Work in the Lab

The Need for Testing of HTML and Programming

Testing in Both Lab and Web

Dropouts and between-Subjects Designs

Experimenter Bias

Multiple Submissions

Ethical Issues in Web and Lab

Risks of Psychological Experiments

Ease of Dropping out from Online Research

Ethical Issues Peculiar to the WWW

Deception on the WWW

Privacy and Confidentiality

Good Manners on the Web

Concluding Comments

References

Chapter 17 - Social Neuroscience: Bridging Social and Biological Systems

Social Neuroscience and Links to Biological Systems

Inferring the Psychological Significance of Physiological Signals

The Psychological and Physiological Domains

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

The BOLD Response

Task Demands

Tissue and Psychology

Electrophysiological Measures of Brain Activity

Summary

Notes

References

Chapter 18 - Supplementing the Snapshots with Video Footage: Taking a Developmental Approach to Understanding Social Psychological Phenomena

What does It Mean to Use the Video Camera?

Why Use the Video Camera?

How to Use the Video Camera

Developmental Designs

The Cross-Sectional Design

The Longitudinal Design

The Cross-Sequential Design

Operationalizing Developmental Phase

Micro-Analytic and Macro-Analytic Strategies

Identifying the Processes Underlying Developmental Change

Other Considerations in Conducting Developmental Research

Recruitment

Procedural Equivalence

Methodological Benefits of Conducting Developmental Research

But You Can't Just Use Only the Video Camera

Conclusion

References

Part V - The Application of Social Psychology and Its Methods to Other Domains

Chapter 19 - Program Evaluation, Action Research, and Social Psychology: A Powerful Blend for Addressing Applied Problems

What is Program Evaluation?

Framework for the Chapter

The Program Evaluation Field

Action Research and Program Evaluation

Action Research Applied to Issues of Educational Opportunity

"Traditional" Evaluations of School Structures

Policy-Relevant Evaluation: Modeling Impacts of School Accountability

Longitudinal Evaluation Designs and Collaborative Work: Understanding Relations of Poverty with Achievement

Methodological Tools and Their Uses

Limitations of Action Research Models for Program Evaluation

Closing Note

References

Chapter 20 - Methodological Challenges and Scientific Rewards for Social Psychologists Conducting Health Behavior Research

A Brief Introduction to Research in the Health, Emotion, and Behavior (HEB) Laboratory

Challenge #1: Serving Two Masters

Challenge #2: Testing Your Question

Challenge #3: Ethical Issues

Relationship with the Community

Professional Development

Graduate School

Postdoctoral Training

Employment

Integrating Social Psychology and Health Behavior

References

Chapter 21 - Research Methods of Micro Organizational Behavior

Relationship of Micro OB to Organizational Research

Comparison of Micro OB to Social Psychology

The Key Factor Distinguishing Micro OB from Social Psychology

Key Independent Variable

Key Dependent Variable

Omnipresence

Research Project Development in Micro OB

Step 1: Problem in Real World Stimulates Unresolved Question

Step 2: Researcher Reformulates the Real World Problem into a Testable Research Question

Step 3: Researcher Consults Theory to Derive Hypotheses

Step 4: Researcher Devises Study to Test Hypotheses

Step 5: Data Analysis and Results

Step 6: Conclusions: Theoretical and Prescriptive

Step 7: Application

Common Methodologies in Micro OB Research

Setting

Design

Classroom Setting

Field Setting

Laboratory Setting

Conclusion

References

Chapter 22 - Conducting Social Psychological Research in Educational Settings: "Lessons We Learned in School"

Moving out of the Lab and into the Classroom: Choosing the Setting

Moving into the Classroom: Choosing a Design

Moving into the Classroom: Choosing Measures

Moving into the Classroom: Implications and Methodological Trade-offs

Moving Back to the Lab

Back to the Classroom: Validity Issues Revisited

Lessons We Learned in School

Lesson #1: The Importance of Using Multiple Research Methodologies in Multiple Settings

Lesson #2: Dealing with the Dilemma of the Social Psychologist

Lesson #3: Increasing the Credibility and Valuation of Research

References

Name Index

Subject Index

About the Editors

About the Contributors