Cover

Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1 - Prospective Memory: A New Research Enterprise

What is a Prospective Memory Task?

Parameters of Prospective Memory Tasks

Execution of the Intended Action is not Immediate

The Prospective Memory Task is Embedded in Ongoing Activity

The Window for Response Initiation is Constrained

The Time Frame for Response Execution is Limited

There must be an Intention

Another consideration

Conclusions

Scientific Study of Prospective Memory

A Typical Paradigm

Chapter 2 - Monitoring in Prospective Memory

Attentional Monitoring

Test-Wait-Test-Exit

Factors Involved in Initiating Monitoring

Preparatory Attentional Processes

Increasing Attentional Demands of the Ongoing Activity

The Cost of Adding a Prospective Memory Intention to the Ongoing Activity

A Formal Measurement Model

To Monitor or Not to Monitor: When is the Question

Strategic Allocation of Monitoring

Prospective Memory Retrieval Mode

Summary

Chapter 3 - Spontaneous Retrieval in Prospective Remembering

Costs of Prospective Memory: Always Present?

Spontaneous Retrieval

Spontaneous Retrieval as a Reflexive Associative Memory Process

Spontaneous Noticing

Familiarity

Discrepancy Plus Attribution

Exogenous Determinants of Noticing

Summary

Chapter 4 - Multiprocess Theory of Prospective Memory

An Advantage of the Multiprocess Theory

Multiprocess Theory

Parameters of the Ongoing Task

Ongoing Tasks and Focal Processing of the Target

Focal Processing

Ongoing-Task Absorption and Demands

Parameters of Prospective Memory Cues

Target Cue Distinctiveness

Associativity of the Target Cue with the Intended Action

Importance of the Prospective Memory Task

Length of the Prospective Memory Retention Interval

Individual Differences and Intra-individual Differences

Working Memory

Personality Variables

Intra-Individual Differences

A Cautionary Methodological Note Concerning Research on Individual Differences

Planning

Summary

Chapter 5 - Storage and Retention of Intended Actions

Goschke and Kuhl's Paradigm

Extending the Intention Superiority Effect

What Produces the Intention Superiority Effect?

The ACT Model

A Motor Encoding Interpretation of the Intention Superiority Effect

Summary and Future Directions

Retention of Intended Actions Over Time: Immune to Forgetting?

Retrieval of Intentions During the Retention Interval

Effects of Retrieval in the Retention Interval

Reminders During the Retention Interval

Summary

Chapter 6 - Planning and Encoding of Intentions

Planning

Implementation Intentions

Theoretical Mechanisms Underlying Implementation Intentions

Heightened Accessibility

Automatic Intention Triggering

Efficient Action Initiation

Individual Differences

Summary

Chapter 7 - Prospective Memory and Life Span Development

Prospective Memory in Children

Age 7 and Younger

Summary

Prospective Memory in Older Adults

Event-Based Prospective Memory Tasks

Prospective Memory Difficulty and Age Differences

The Multiprocess Theory and Age Differences

Resource Demands Emerge as Age-Related Costs to the Ongoing Activity

Do it or Lose it: When Responding is Delayed After Prospective Memory Retrieval

Habitual Prospective Memory Tasks

Prospective Memory Performance as a Possible Index of Risk for Dementia

Semi-Naturalistic Prospective Memory Tasks

Time-Based Prospective Memory Tasks

Summary and Observations

Chapter 8 - Cognitive Neuroscience of Prospective Memory

The Neuropsychology of Prospective Memory

Case Studies

Neuropsychological Assessment of Normal Aging

A Provisional Neuropsychological Theory

Neuroimaging and Prospective Memory

Positron Emissions Tomography (PET)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs)

Summary and Future Directions

Chapter 9 - Prospective Memory as it Applies to Work and Naturalistic Settings

General Recommendations for Improving Prospective Memory

Remove the Delay in Delayed Intentions: Do it or Lose it

Use Good External Cues

Anticipate the Triggering Cues: Use Implementation Intentions

Beware of Busy and Demanding Conditions

Beware of Interruptions

Address the Special Problems of Habitual Prospective Memory Tasks

Use External Aids

Increase the Complexity of the Action

Use the Spaced-Retrieval Technique

An Analysis of a Prospective Memory Failure and Possible Interventions

Limitations of Existing Laboratory Experiments

Real-World Prospective Memory Demands are Embedded in Meaningful Events

Real-World Habitual Prospective Memory Tasks are Deeply Cued

Interruptions can Interfere with Habitual Actions

An Atypical Action is Sometimes Required Instead of a Habitual Action

Monitoring for Low-Frequency Events may be Required Over Extended Periods of Time

Complex Sets of Actions Need to be Planned and Initiated

Real-World Retention Intervals are Often Long

Nonlaboratory Methods for Investigating Prospective Memory

Incident Reports

Clinical Assessment Techniques

Observational Studies

Simulations

Naturalistic Studies

Naturalistic Studies with a Diary

Naturalistic Studies with Recording Devices

External Reminding Devices

Summary

Chapter 10 - Final Thoughts

General Observations

Beware of Unitary Interpretations

Keep in Mind Real-World Prospective Memory Tasks When Designing Laboratory Prospective Memory Tasks

Investigate how Individual Differences on Cognitive, Neurocognitive, and Personality Dimensions Affect Prospective Memory

Explore People's Metacognitive Knowledge About Prospective Memory

Continue to Conduct Finer-Grained Analysis of the Processes Involved in Prospective Remembering

Continue to Develop and Accept New Methodological Approaches, Including Naturalistic Ones, for Studying Prospective Remembering

Methodological Recommendations for Encouraging Consistency Across Experiments and for Understanding Existing Inconsistencies

Understanding the Nature of the Task Interference, or Costs, Involved in Prospective Memory

Expanding Theories and Investigations of Prospective Memory to Arenas not Typically Termed Prospective Memory

Capitalizing on the Prospective Memory Paradigm for Studying the Broader Issue of Spontaneous Retrieval

Epilogue

References

Author Index

Subject Index

About the Authors