Owing to climate change related uncertainties and anticipated population growth, different parts of the developing and the developed world (particularly urban areas) are experiencing water shortages or flooding and security of fit-for-purpose supplies is becoming a major issue. The emphasis on decentralized alternative water supply systems has increased considerably. Most of the information on such systems is either scattered or focuses on large scale reuse with little consideration given to decentralized small to medium scale systems.
Alternative Water Supply Systems brings together recent research into the available and innovative options and additionally shares experiences from a wide range of contexts from both developed and developing countries. Alternative Water Supply Systems covers technical, social, financial and institutional aspects associated with decentralized alternative water supply systems. These include systems for greywater recycling, rainwater harvesting, recovery of water through condensation and sewer mining. A number of case studies from the UK, the USA, Australia and the developing world are presented to discuss associated environmental and health implications.
The book provides insights into a range of aspects associated with alternative water supply systems and an evidence base (through case studies) on potential water savings and trade-offs. The information organized in the book is aimed at facilita
Chapter
1.4 International Comparisons
1.6 Summary and Conclusions
Chapter 2: Evaluating rain tank pump performance at a micro-component level
2.2.1 Pump energy intensity and associated costs
2.2.2 Common configurations for rainwater tank systems
2.3 Australian End-Use Pump Performance Study
2.3.1 Research objectives
2.3.2.1 Sample selection process
2.3.2.3 Water and energy data capture
2.3.2.4 Data preparation and processing
2.3.3 Results and analysis
2.3.3.1 Rainwater use event sample size
2.3.3.2 Total sample water end-use results
2.3.3.3 Individual home end-use results
2.4 Alternative Supply Spectrum Comparisons
2.5 Discussion and Conclusions
Chapter 3: The verification of a behavioural model for simulating the hydraulic performance of rainwater harvesting systems
3.2 The Rainwater Harvesting System and Instrumentation
3.3 Field Testing Results and Discussion
3.4 Modelling System Performance
3.5 Verification of the Rainwater Harvesting System Model
3.5.1 Time interval sensitivity
3.5.2 Rainfall loss sensitivity
3.5.3 WC demand sensitivity
Chapter 4: Rainwater harvesting for domestic water demand and stormwater management
4.1.2 The background research
4.2 Uncertainties Associated with Designing RWH tanks for Stormwater Control
4.3 The Stormwater Sizing Methodology
4.4 The Pilot Study – Hanwell Fields (Banbury, UK)
4.4.1 Design of individual tanks (models 1 & 2)
4.4.2 The importance of actual vs. assumed occupancy for the performance of RWH stormwater control systems
4.4.3 Model 1 – performance of the design scenario: tanks for individual properties with occupancy levels based on mean occupancy statistics
4.4.4 Model 2 – performance of the actual scenario for individual tanks
4.4.5 Model 3 – performance of the design scenario for a communal tank
4.5 A Methodology for Assessing Uncertainty of Property Occupancy
4.6 Active Management of RWH Systems
4.6.1 Active control decision rules
Chapter 5: Rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing in UK Schools: Opportunities for combining with water efficiency education
5.3 Configuration of RWH Systems in UK School Buildings
5.4 Benefits of RWH in the UK Context
5.5 Engaging with Pupils to Encourage Water Efficient Behaviour
5.6 Retrofitting RWH Systems into London Schools
5.7.1 Project background and context
5.7.2 Water use benchmarking and discussion with teachers/facilities staff
5.7.3 Be Water Aware school assembly
5.7.5 Be a Water Detective Water audit
5.8.3 Engagement and responsiveness
5.9 Saving Six Litres of Water a Day – What Does it Mean in Practice?
5.9.1 Saving 6 litres of water from a shallower bath
5.9.2 Saving six litres of water from a shorter shower
5.9.3 Saving six litres from brushing teeth
5.9.4 Saving 6 litres of water from efficient washing up habits
5.9.5 Savings from WC flush
Chapter 6: Community participation in decentralised rainwater systems: A mexican case study
6.5 Community Participation and Leadership
6.5.1 Training and succession
6.5.2 Technical complexities
Chapter 7: Assessing domestic rainwater harvesting storage cost and geographic availability in Uganda’s Rakai District
7.1.2 Domestic rainwater harvesting
7.1.3 The Ugandan context
7.1.4 Motivation and objectives
7.2 Domestic Rainwater Harvesting in Uganda
7.4.1 Traditional/informal storage methods
7.4.2 Manufactured products
7.4.2.1 Fifty-five gallon metal drums
7.4.2.2 Corrugated iron tanks
7.4.3 Built-in-place products
7.4.3.3 Ferrocement tanks
7.4.3.4 Partially below ground ferrocement tanks (PBG)
7.4.3.5 Interlocking stabilised soil brick (ISSB)
Chapter 8: Incentivising and charging for rainwater harvesting – three international perspectives
8.2 First International Perspective – UK
8.2.1 Legislation and emerging markets
8.2.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms
8.3 Second International Perspective – Brazil
8.3.1 Legislation and market
8.3.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms
8.4 Third International Perspective - USA
8.4.1 Legislation and market
8.4.2 Incentives and charging mechanisms
Chapter 9: Air conditioning condensate recovery and reuse for non-potable applications
9.2.1 A solution to urban water supply issues
9.2.2 A water-energy infrastructure synergy
9.3 Quantity: Volume Potential
9.4 Quality: Fit-for-Purpose
9.6.1 Case study: University of Tampa
Project 1: Alternative water for irrigation and landscape features
Project 2: Utility plant process make-up water
9.6.2 Case study: University of South Florida
9.6.3 Case study: Mercer University
Project: Senior design project
9.6.4 Additional condensate recovery and reuse examples
9.7 Lessons Learnt and Discussion
Section II: Greywater Recycling Systems
Chapter 10: Greywater reuse: Risk identification, quantification and management
10.2 Greywater Characterisation and Major Risks Associated with its Reuse
10.3 Short Review of Existing Treatment Technologies
10.4 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA)
10.5 Design for Reliability and Reliability Analysis
10.5.1 Using a fault tree analysis to identify system failures
10.5.2 Using a fault tree analysis to redesign the system
10.5.3 Reliability of a full-scale onsite system – Case study
10.5.3.1 Reliability of a greywater biological treatment system
10.5.3.2 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of failures, reliability and Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
Chapter 11: Greywater recycling: Guidelines for safe adoption
11.3 Greywater Treatment Systems
11.3.1 Biological systems
11.4 International Regulations and Guidelines
11.5 Comparison of International Standards and Testing Protocols
11.5.1 British standards BS 8525
11.5.2 New South wales accreditation guidelines
11.5.3 Commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation greywater technology testing protocol
Chapter 12: Membrane processes for greywater recycling
12.2 Greywater Quality and Reuse Standards
12.3 Treatment Performance
12.3.2 Hybrid membrane systems
12.4 Operation, Maintenance and Costs
12.4.1 Operation and maintenance
12.4.1.1 Fouling control measures
12.4.1.2 Direct filtration
Chapter 13: Energy and carbon implications of water saving micro-components and greywater reuse systems
13.2 Drivers for Water Efficiency
13.3 Domestic Water Consumption and Associated Energy Footprint
13.4 Water Efficiency Policy and Enabling Technologies
13.5 Greywater Treatment and Reuse Systems
13.6 Assessment Methodology
13.6.1 Quantification of water volumes
13.6.2 Estimation of energy and carbon load
13.6.3 Application of a multi-objective optimisation based assessment tool
13.7 Results and Discussion
Section III: Wastewater Reuse Systems
Chapter 14: Introduction to sewer mining: Technology and health risks
14.2 Advantages of Sewer Mining
14.2.1 Reduced transportation costs
14.2.2 Improved treatment of organic solids
14.2.3 Enhanced resilience and disaster recovery
14.2.4 Volume stripping and deferred capital investment
14.2.5 Fit for purpose treatment
14.2.6 Right to reclaimed water
14.3 Treatment Options for Sewer Mining
14.4.1 Human health risks
14.4.2 Environmental risks
14.5 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)
14.5.1 HACCP in the water industry
Chapter 15: The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park water recycling system, London
15.1 Introduction and Project Overview
15.2 The Old Ford Warer Recycling Plant and Reclaimed Water Network
15.2.1 The source influent from the northern outfall sewer and the site
15.2.3 Membrane bioreactor
15.2.5 The reclaimed water distribution network
15.3 Reclaimed Water Quality
15.4 Reclaimed Water Consumption
15.5 Operational Experiences
15.6 Reclaimed Water Safety Plan
15.7 Recipient Collaboration
15.9 Cost-Benefit and Comparison with other Studies
15.10.1 Advanced preparation, awareness and guidance
15.10.2 Reclaimed water quality
15.10.3 Communication and liaison
Chapter 16: Decentralised wastewater treatment and reuse plants: Understanding their fugitive greenhouse gas emissions and environmental footprint
16.2 Emission Mechanics of N2O and CH4 from Wastewater Treatment Systems
16.2.1 Study specification and objectives
16.3 Measurement Campaign Specification and Analysis Methodologies
16.3.1 Reuse systems specifications
16.3.2 Gas analysis instrumentation and sampling technique
16.3.3 Wastewater GHG emissions modelling
16.4 Measurement Campaign Results and Discussion
16.4.1 Fugitive emissions
16.4.2 Total carbon footprint for each reuse system
16.4.3 Emissions mitigation and gas reuse strategies
Chapter 17: Large-scale water reuse systems and energy
17.2 Energy Footprint of the Urban Water Cycle
17.2.1 Typical components of energy consumption in the urban water cycle
17.2.2 Energy consumption of wastewater treatment and reuse
17.2.3 Carbon footprint of wastewater treatment and reuse
17.3 Key Energy Use Components of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
17.3.1 Typical distribution of energy consumption
17.3.2 Energy consumption of large water recycling facilities
17.4 Methods for Energy and Carbon Footprint Minimization
Chapter 18: Risk mitigation for wastewater irrigation systems in low-income countries: Opportunities and limitations of the WHO guidelines
18.2 Health Risks Associated with Wastewater Irrigation Systems in Low-Income Countries
18.3 Risk Mitigation Perspectives from the WHO Guidelines
18.3.1 The multiple-barrier approach
18.3.2 Evidence of risk mitigation in the WHO guidelines
18.4 Evidence from Field Studies in West Africa
18.4.1 Farm-based risk mitigation measures
18.4.1.1 Improving irrigation water quality at farms
18.4.1.3 Spray and sprinkler irrigation
18.4.1.4 Pathogen die-off
18.4.2 Post-harvest risk mitigation measures
18.4.2.1 Produce peeling at markets
18.4.2.2 Produce washing at markets
18.4.2.3 Produce washing and disinfection at kitchens
18.5 Adoption of Safe Re-use Practices
18.5.1 Economic incentives
18.5.2 Raising Awareness: ‘making visible the invisible’
18.5.4 Land tenure security
18.5.5 Training and extension
18.5.6 Laws and regulations
18.5.7 Effective communication
18.6 Discussion and Conclusion
Section IV: Decision Making and Implementation
Chapter 19: Decision support systems for water reuse in smart building water cycle management
19.2.1 Building automation
19.2.2 Relationship to green building
19.3 The Building Water Cycle
19.3.1 Building water demands
19.3.2 Building water sources
19.3.4 Integrated Building Water Management (IBWM)
19.4 Decision Support Systems
19.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages
19.4.2 Role of DSSs in smart building water reuse and recycling
19.4.3 Tools for building water management
19.4.4 Incorporating IBWM into smart building DSSs
Chapter 20: A blueprint for moving from building-scale to district-scale – San Francisco’s non-potable water programme
20.2 Alternative Water Sources and End Uses Available On-Site
20.2.1 Alternative water sources
20.2.2 Non-potable end uses
20.4 Green Building Movement as a Driver for On-Site Non-Potable Water Use
20.5 Current Regulation of Alternative Water Sources
20.6 Working Together – A Three-Pronged Approach to Collaboration
20.7 Water Quality Requirements for On-Site Non-Potable Systems
20.8 The SFPUC as a Resource
20.9 On-Site Non-Potable Reuse at the SFPUC Headquarters
20.9.1 Permitting the system
20.9.2 The treatment system at SFPUC headquarters
20.9.2.1 Treatment process
20.9.2.2 Water quality results
20.10 Moving Towards District-Scale Water Sharing in San Francisco
20.10.1 Crossing property lines
20.10.2 Selling water and public utilities
Chapter 21: The socio-technology of alternative water systems
21.2 Infrastructure, Society and the Environment
21.3 Sustainability, Technology and Water
21.4.1 Case study: London, England
21.5.1 Case study: South-East Queensland, Australia
21.6 District Non-Potable Water Reuse
21.6.1 Case study: Old Ford water recycling plant, London
21.7 Rainwater Harvesting
21.7.1 Case study: Pimpama Coomera, Australia
Alternative Water Supply Systems
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