Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Table of Contents

List of Contributors

Editor Biographies

1 - Scanning Electron Microscopy

1 - Introduction

2 - Scanning Electron Microscope

2.1 - Vacuum

2.2 - Electron Gun

2.2.1 - Filament Types

2.3 - Electron Column

2.4 - Sample Chamber

3 - Using the SEM

4 - Developments in Scanning Electron Microscopy

4.1 - Electric Charge Buildup in the Sample

4.2 - Nanoassembly

4.3 - Electron Detectors

5 - Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy

6 - Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy

7 - Electron Backscatter Diffraction

8 - Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy in Scanning Electron Microscopy

9 - Electron Beam Lithography

10 - Nanomanipulation

List of Symbols

References

Further Reading

2 - Atomic Force Microscopy: A Powerful Tool for Electrical Characterization

1 - Introduction

2 - Operating Principles

3 - Operating Modes

3.1 - Contact Mode

3.2 - Intermittent Contact Mode

4 - Image Processing and Analysis

5 - Electrical Nanocharacterization

5.1 - Classification of Operating Regimes

5.1.1 - Scan Modes

5.1.2 - Modulation Schemes

5.1.3 - Types of Configurations

5.2 - Examples of Use

5.2.1 - Electrostatic Force Microscopy

5.2.2 - Scanning Surface Potential Microscopy

List of Symbols

References

3 - Spectroscopic Techniques for Characterization of Nanomaterials

1 - Ultraviolet–Visible Absorption

1.1 - Characterization of Materials and Nanoparticles

1.2 - Catalysis

1.3 - Sensors

1.4 - Monitoring the Growth of Nanostructured Films

2 - Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

2.1 - Molecular Interactions

2.2 - Molecular Orientation

3 - Raman Scattering

3.1 - Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

3.2 - Nanomaterials From Metals

4 - Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

4.1 - Sensor Units and Metallic Nanostructures

4.2 - Electronic Circuits

4.3 - Biological Materials

4.4 - Paintings and Textiles of Historical Value

List of Symbols

References

4 - Dynamic Light Scattering Applied to Nanoparticle Characterization

1 - Theory

1.1 - Rayleigh Scattering

1.2 - Brownian Movement and the DLS Technique

1.3 - Analysis of the Distributions

2 - Applications

List of abbreviations and symbols

References

5 - X-Ray Diffraction and Scattering by Nanomaterials

1 - X-Ray Diffraction Applied to the Study of Nanocrystalline Powders

1.1 - X-Ray Diffraction

1.1.1 - Introduction

1.1.2 - Kinematic Theory

1.2 - Powder Diffraction Method

1.2.1 - Fundamentals

1.2.2 - Experimental Settings

1.3 - X-ray Power Diffraction Applied to Nanomaterials

1.3.1 - Phase Identification by XPD: Application to Nanomaterials

1.3.2 - Methods for Studying Crystallite Size and Microstrains by Analysis of X-Ray Diffraction Peak Profiles

1.3.2.1 - Williamson–Hall plots and simple cases

1.3.2.2 - The Fourier method of Warren–Averbach

1.3.2.3 - Integral breadth method

1.4 - Rietveld Method and its Application to the Study of Crystallite Size and Microstrains

1.5 - Case Study: Nanocrystalline Y2O3-Doped ZrO2 Powders

1.6 - Modern Methods for Analysis of XPD Data from Nanomaterials

2 - Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering

2.1 - Basic Aspects

2.1.1 - Scattering of X-Rays by Free Electrons

2.1.2 - X-Ray Scattering by a Material Volume with an Arbitrary Structure

2.1.3 - X-Ray Scattering by an Atom

2.1.4 - X-Ray Scattering by a Cluster of Atoms

2.1.5 - Correlation Function Associated With an Arbitrary Structure

2.1.6 - X-Ray Scattering by Isotropic Systems

2.2 - Nanoparticles Immersed in Homogeneous Matrices

2.2.1 - Redefinition of the Correlation Function

2.2.2 - Proteins in Solution

2.3 - Structural Parameters and Models

2.3.1 - Determination of the Radius of Gyration of Nanoparticles in Dilute Solution

2.3.2 - Determination of the Surface/Volume Ratio of Nanoparticles

2.3.3 - Determination of the Volume of Nanoparticles in Dilute Solution

2.4 - Software for the Analysis of SAXS Curves of Proteins in Solution

2.4.1 - Distance and Size Distribution Functions

2.4.2 - SAXS Curves Determined From High-Resolution Structures

2.4.3 - Ab Initio Determination of Protein Shape From Experimental SAXS Curves

2.4.4 - Determination of the Molecular Mass of Proteins From Experimental SAXS Curves on a Relative Scale

2.5 - Example of Application: Study by SAXS of Leptospira Ferrodoxin-NADP(H) Reductase in Solution

3 - GISAXS and ASAXS

3.1 - Grazing-Incidence X-Ray Scattering

3.1.1 - Refractive Index, Penetration Depth, and Fresnel Reflection and Transmission

3.1.1.1 - Refractive index

3.1.1.2 - Penetration depth

3.1.1.3 - Fresnel equations for X-ray reflection and transmission

3.1.2 - Scattering Vector

3.1.3 - Scattering Intensity due to Nanoparticles Deposited on the Substrate Surface

3.1.4 - Nanoparticles Buried Below the Surface of a Given Substrate

3.1.5 - Examples of GISAXS Application

3.1.5.1 - Cobalt silicide (CoSi2) nanoplatelets buried in monocrystalline silicon

3.1.5.2 - Multilayers of PbTe nanocrystals immersed in SiO2

3.2 - Anomalous or Resonant Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering

3.2.1 - Atomic Scattering Factor

3.2.1.1 - Atomic scattering factor for photon energies far from those corresponding to the absorption edges

3.2.1.2 - General definition of the atomic scattering factor

3.2.2 - SAXS Intensity for Photon Energies Close to Those of the Absorption Edges

3.2.3 - Structural Analysis With Composition Selectivity

3.2.4 - Instrumental Aspects

3.2.4.1 - Choice of photon energy

3.2.4.2 - Data correction

3.2.4.2.1 - Normalization of SAXS intensity and subtraction of parasitic scattering

3.2.4.2.2 - Experimental determination of the real part of the correction term of the atomic scattering factor

3.2.5 - Application Example

References

6 - Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) for Sensors and Biosensors

1 - Introduction

2 - Surface Plasmons

3 - Surface Plasmon Resonance–Based Sensors

4 - SPR Applications

4.1 - Materials Characterization

4.2 - Medical Diagnosis

4.3 - Food Quality Sensors

4.4 - Drug Development

5 - Final Remarks

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

References

Index

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