Front Cover

Advisory Board

Characterization and Analysis of Microplastics

Copyright

Contents

Contributors to Volume 75

Series Editor's Preface

Preface

1 - Microplastics – Occurrence, Fate and Behaviour in the Environment

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Sources of Microplastics in the Environment

1.2 Primary Microplastics

1.3 Secondary Microplastics

2. FATE OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Spatial and Temporal Distribution

2.2 Degradation

2.2.1 Abiotic Degradation

2.2.2 Biodegradation

2.3 The ‘Missing Link’ in Plastic Mass Balance

3. BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTS OF MICROPLASTICS

3.1 Physical Effects

3.2 Chemical Effects

4. METHODOLOGIES USED FOR THE IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MICROPLASTICS

5. KEY CHALLENGES AND ROAD MAP FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

2 - Microplastics Sampling and Sample Handling

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SAMPLING

3. SAMPLES HANDLING

3.1 Contamination

4. WATER SAMPLING USING PLANKTON TOW NETS

4.1 Pelagic Plastics Sampled by Other Techniques

5. ICE AND SNOW

6. FOOD RESOURCES

6.1 Sampling From Stomach Contents

7. MICROBIOTA OF THE ‘PLASTISPHERE’

8. SAMPLING MICROPLASTICS FROM BEACHES

8.1 Image Analysis as a Sampling Method for Microplastics on Beaches

9. SEDIMENT TRAPS FOR MICROPLASTIC SAMPLING FROM THE WATER COLUMN

10. DEEP-SEA SEDIMENTS

11. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

3 - Morphological and Physical Characterization of Microplastics

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SIZE AND SHAPE

3. COLOUR

4. DENSITY

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

4 - Characterization and Quantification of Microplastics by Infrared Spectroscopy

1. INTRODUCTION TO INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY OF MICROPLASTICS

1.1 Molecular Vibrations

1.2 Excitation Processes in Infrared Spectroscopy

1.2.1 Transition of Vibrational States

1.2.2 Overtones, Hot Transitions, Combination and Difference Transitions

1.2.3 Relative Intensities of Absorbance Bands

1.3 The Infrared Spectrum

1.3.1 Units of an Infrared Spectrum

1.3.2 Ranges of an Infrared Spectrum

1.3.3 Critical Values of an Infrared Spectrum

1.3.4 Spectral Resolution

2. MID-INFRARED

2.1 Instrumentation

2.1.1 Basic Working Scheme of an Infrared Spectrometer

2.1.2 Interferometer

2.2 Techniques and Accessories

2.2.1 Transmittance of Thin Polymer Films

2.2.2 Transmittance of Microplastic Particles within KBr Pellets

2.2.3 Attenuated Total Reflectance of Microplastics

2.2.4 Diffuse Reflectance of Microplastic Powders

2.2.5 Mid-Infrared Microscopy of Microplastics

2.2.6 Handheld Techniques

2.3 Characterization and Quantification of Microplastics

2.3.1 Data Preprocessing

2.3.2 Identification of Microplastics

2.3.3 Common Problems in the Case of Degraded Microplastics

2.3.4 Chemical Imaging of Microplastic Samples with FT-MIR Microscopy

2.3.5 Characterization of Microplastic Ageing

2.3.6 Multivariate Characterization Techniques for Microplastics

3. NEAR-INFRARED

3.1 Instrumentation

3.2 Identification of Polymers

4. APPLICATIONS OF FT-MIR SPECTROSCOPY

REFERENCES

5 - Characterization of Microplastics by Raman Spectroscopy

1. INTRODUCTION

2. RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY BASICS

2.1 Principles of Raman Spectroscopy

2.2 Spectrometers in a Nutshell

2.3 Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering

3. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY

4. STATE-OF-THE-ART

5. FINAL REMARKS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

6 - Application of Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS)

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy

1.2 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy

2. SAMPLE PREPARATION

3. EQUIPMENT OPERATION

4. MICROPLASTICS CHARACTERIZATION

5. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

REFERENCES

7 - Application of Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC/MS)

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PYROLYSIS-GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROMETRY TO THE ANALYSIS OF MICROPLASTICS

2.1 Instrumentation and Method

2.2 Characterization of Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Poly(ethylene-co-propylene) and Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate)

2.3 Characterization of Polystyrene and Poly(acrylonitrile-co-1,3-butadiene-co-styrene)

2.4 Characterization of Rubbers – Poly(styrene-co-1,3-butadiene) and Poly(acrylonitrile-co-1,3-butadiene)

2.5 Characterization of Polyamides

2.6 Characterization of Phenolic Resin

2.7 Characterization of Polyurethanes

2.8 Characterization of Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

2.9 Characterization of Poly(vinyl chloride)

2.10 Characterization of Silicone Rubber

3. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

8 - Advanced Analytical Techniques for Assessing the Chemical Compounds Related to Microplastics

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PLASTIC ADDITIVES

2.1 Phthalates

2.2 Perfluoroalkyl Substances

2.3 Nonylphenol

2.4 Bisphenol A

2.5 Brominated Flame Retardants

2.5.1 Polybrominated Biphenyls

2.5.2 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers

2.5.3 Tetrabromobisphenol-A

2.5.4 Hexabromocyclododecanes

3. ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS SORBED TO MICROPLASTICS

3.1 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

3.2 Organochlorine Pesticides

3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

4. EXTRACTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM MICROPLASTICS

4.1 Soaking/Maceration

4.2 Ultrasound

4.3 Soxhlet

4.4 Accelerated Solvent Extraction

4.5 Comparison of the Different Extraction Methods

5. CLEANUP – PURIFICATION AND SEPARATION OF THE COMPOUNDS

5.1 Adsorption Chromatography

5.2 Chemical Treatments

6. IDENTIFICATION AND QUANTITATION TECHNIQUES

6.1 Chromatography

6.1.1 Mass Spectrometry

6.1.2 Electron Capture Detection

6.1.3 Flame Ionization Detection

6.1.4 Diode Array Detector

6.1.5 Fluorescence

7. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

9 - The Role of Laboratory Experiments in the Validation of Field Data

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MICROPLASTICS USED IN LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

2.1 Representativeness of Microplactic Used in Laboratory Experiments for Microplastics Found in the Environment

2.1.1 Importance of Shape

2.1.2 Importance of Microplastic Chemical Composition and Density

2.1.3 Ageing of Particles Versus Pristine Particles

2.1.4 The Question of Size: Micro- and Nanoplastics

2.1.5 Using Relevant Exposure Concentrations and Durations – Is the Metric Appropriate?

2.2 Validating the Microplastic ‘Vector Effect’

2.2.1 Microplastic Vector Effect

2.2.2 Environmental Sampling of Sorbed Chemicals

2.2.3 Understanding Sorption Through Laboratory Study

2.2.4 Laboratory Studies Into the Organismal Level Vector Effect

2.2.5 Importance of the Vector Effect

3. TYPICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR TESTING EFFECTS OF MICROPLASTICS

3.1 Waterborne Exposure

3.2 Sediment Exposure

3.3 Dietary Exposure, Trophic Transfer

3.4 Outdoor Mesocosms

3.5 Ingestion/Egestion of Microplastics

4. TOXICOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF MICROPLASTIC EXPOSURES

4.1 Effects at the Subindividual Level

4.2 Effects at the Individual Level

4.2.1 Feeding Rate, Energy Status and Oxygen Consumption

4.2.2 Reproduction, Larval Development and Behaviour

4.2.3 Mortality Rate

4.3 Effects at Higher Levels of Biological Organization

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS

REFERENCES

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Z

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