Front Cover

Multifunctional Agriculture

Copyright Page

Contents

Biography

Preface

I. The Basics

1 Agroecology and the Role of Trees

1 Definition of Agroforestry Revisited

2 The Role of Trees in Agroecology and Sustainable Agriculture in the Tropics

Summary

Introduction

Understanding the Problem Before Seeking Solutions

Addressing Soil Fertility

Biodiversity and Agroecological Functions

Rebuilding Agroecological Functions

Maintaining Late Successional or Mature Agroecosystems

Shade Modification

Bird Exclusion

Food Chain and Life Cycle Studies

Filling the Niches Below the Canopy With Useful Plants

Landscape and Scaling Issues

The Big Picture: The Role of Agroecology and Agroforestry in Tropical Agriculture

3 Trees: A Keystone Role in Agroecosystem Function: An Update

2 Agroforestry Practices and Systems

4 Agroforestry and the Mitigation of Land Degradation in the Humid and Sub-Humid Tropics of Africa

Summary

Land Degradation

The Role of Agroforestry

Soil Fertility Improvement

Hedgerow Intercropping

Improved Fallows

Biomass Transfer

Soil Conservation

Barrier Hedges

Trees and Shrubs on Conservation Structures

Multistrata Systems

Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs as Fodder Supplements

Feed Quality

Effects on Animal Performance

Fodder Production Systems

High-Value Trees for Income Generation

Naturally Regenerating Trees in Farmland

Planted Trees in Farmland

Home Gardens

Domestication

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

5 The Domestication and Commercialization of Indigenous Trees in Agroforestry for the Alleviation of Poverty

SUMMARY

Introduction

Domestication Strategies

Research in Progress

Commercialization

Conclusion

6 Trees: Delivering Enhanced Crop Production and Income: An Update

3 Importance of Tree Products

7 Potential for Novel Food Products From Agroforestry Trees

SUMMARY

Introduction

Humid Lowlands of West Africa

Irvingia gabonensis (O’Rorke) Baill. and Related Species (Bush Mango or Dika Nut)

Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam and Related Species (African Plum, African Pear, or Safoutier)

Ricinodendron heudelottii (Baill.) Heckel (Peanut Tree, Essessang, or Nyangsang)

Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don (White or African Star-apple)

Garcinia kola Heckel and Related Species (Bitter Cola)

Semi-Arid Lowlands of West Africa

Adansonia digitata Linn. (Baobab)

Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. syn. Butyrospermum paradoxum (Sheanut or Karité)

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don (Néré or Locust Bean)

Tamarindus indica Linn. (Tamarind)

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Jujube or Ber)

Southern African Plateau—Miombo Woodlands

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst. (Marula)

Uapaca kirkiana Muell. Arg. (Masuku or Mahobohobo)

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Jujube or Ber)

Vangueria infausta Burch. (Wild Medlar)

Azanza garckeana (F. Hoffm.) Exell & Hillcoat (Snotapple)

Western Amazonia

Inga edulis Mart. (Inga or Guaba)

Bactris gasipaes H.B.K. (Peach Palm or Pejibaye)

Conclusions

8 Evidence that Subsistence Farmers have Domesticated Indigenous Fruits (Dacryodes edulis and Irvingia gabonensis) in Camer...

Summary

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Results

D. edulis (293 trees)

I. gabonensis (152 trees)

Discussion

Acknowledgments

9 Non-Timber Forest Products – A Misnomer?

10 Trees: An Important Source of Food and Non-Food Products for Farmers: An Update

II. Genetic Selection for Added-Value and New Opportunities

4 Tree Domestication

11 Domestication of Forest Trees: A Process to Secure the Productivity and Future Diversity of Tropical Ecosystems

Summary

Introduction

Exploitation of Natural Forest and the Needs of the Future

Domestication of Underutilized Timber Species

Experience with Triplochiton scleroxylon

Experience with other timber producing species

Domestication of Species for Fruit and Other Forest Products

Plantations in the Tropics

Acknowledgments

12 Tree Domestication in Tropical Agroforestry

Summary

Introduction

Origins and Concepts of Domestication

Objectives of Tree Domestication

Selection of Tree Species

Tree Domestication Strategies

Germplasm Sourcing, Documentation, and Deployment

Tree Improvement Research

Participatory Domestication

Case Studies

Prunus africana

Dacryodes edulis

Recommendations: Future Developments

13 Agroforestry Tree Products (AFTPs): Targeting Poverty Reduction and Enhanced Livelihoods

Summary

Introduction

Trees

The Origins of Tropical Tree Domestication

The Participatory Tree Domestication Approach—the Case of West and Central Africa

Identification, Capture, Retention, and Protection of Genetic Diversity

Cultivation and the Growth of Cultivars

Markets

Economic and Social Benefits from Trading AFTPs

The Linkages between the Domestication and Commercialization of AFTPs.

Winners and Losers: Impacts on Livelihoods

Features of this Agroforestry Approach to Rural Development

Policy Guidelines

Development Issues for the Future

14 Tree Domestication in Agroforestry: Progress in the Second Decade (2003–2012)

Summary

Introduction

The First Decade (1992–2002)

The Second Decade (2003–12)

The Humid Lowlands of West and Central Africa

The Drylands of the Sahel

Woody Savannah of Southern Africa

East Africa

Latin America

Asia

Oceania

Recent Developments in Agroforestry Tree Improvement

Molecular Genetics

The Use of New Technologies

Community Engagement in Germplasm Production

Recognition of the Rights of Small-Scale Producers

Negotiation of Access to Markets

Adoption and Impact: Toward Enhanced Farmer Livelihoods and Global Environmental Benefits

Public/Private Partnerships: Localization and the Case of Allanblackia spp.

Toward the Third Decade

15 Trees: Capturing Useful Traits in Elite Cultivars: An Update

III. Research Methods

5 Strategy and Techniques

5.1 Strategy

16 Towards a Domestication Strategy for Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Tropics

Introduction

Developing a Strategy for Creating New “Cultivars” Vegetatively

Methods of Propagation and the Cloning Process

Appropriate Technology

Choice Between Mature and Juvenile Tissues

The Use of Juvenile Tissues

The Use of Mature Tissues

Developing a Strategy for Clonal Selection

Opportunities for Introducing New Variation

The Wise Use of Genetic Variability

Establishing a Gene Bank (Ex situ Conservation)

The Wise Utilization of Genetic Resources in Cultivation (Circa situ Conservation)

Protecting Some Wild Populations (In situ Conservation)

Socioeconomic and Environmental Context for This Strategy

Conclusions

5.2 Techniques: Vegetative Propagation

17 Low-Technology Techniques for the Vegetative Propagation of Tropical Trees

Summary

Introduction

Materials and Methods

General

Preparation of Cuttings

The Nonmist Propagator

Results

The Propagator Environment

Rooting Tests

Discussion

18 Stockplant Factors Affecting Root Initiation in Cuttings of Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum., an Indigenous Hardwood o...

Summary

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Experimental and Results

Effects of Node Position

Effects of Stockplant Orientation

Effects of Different Pruning Regimes

Effects of Applying Nutrients

Effects of the Numbers and Positions of Shoots on Stockplants

Effects of Light Environment

Discussion

Acknowledgements

19 The Rooting Ability of Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum. Cuttings: The Interactions Between Stockplant Irradiance, Ligh...

SUMMARY

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Effects of Two Light Qualities With Uniform Irradiance

Effects of Irradiance and Nutrients at a R:FR Ratio of 6.3

Results

Effects of Three Levels of Irradiance With Constant Light Quality

Effects of Two Light Qualities With Uniform Irradiance

Effects of Irradiance and Nutrients: at an R:FR Ratio of 6.3

The Light Environment of a Stockplant Canopy

Discussion

Acknowledgments

20 Plant Cloning: Macro-Propagation

SUMMARY

Introduction

The Use of Macropropagation

Techniques of Macropropagation

Grafting and Budding

Marcotting or Air Layering

Stem Cuttings

The Propagation Environment

Postseverance Treatments

Auxin Applications

Leaf Area

Cutting Length

Stockplant Factors: Cutting Origin and Environment

Within-Shoot Factors

Between Shoot Factors

Stockplant Environment

Stockplant Management

Phase Change

Genetic Variation in Rooting Ability

Conclusions

Courses

Relevant Websites

5.3 Techniques: Genetic Characterization

21 Quantitative Descriptors of Variation in the Fruits and Seeds of Irvingia gabonensis

SUMMARY

Introduction

Methods and Materials

Results

Sample Size

Fruit Weight and Size

Nut Weight and Size

Kernel Weight and Size

Shell Weight

Fruit Flesh Depth

Relationships Between Fruit, Nut, and Kernel Traits

Fruit Taste, Color, and Fibrosity

Multitrait Assessment

Discussion

Acknowledgments

22 Domestication Potential of Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp caffra) in South Africa and Namibia: 1. Phenotypic Variation...

SUMMARY

Introduction

Methods and Materials

Results

Variation Between Sites

Comparison of Mean Values Between South Africa and Namibia

Comparison of Mean Values Between Sites in South Africa

Comparison of Mean Values Between Land Uses in South Africa

Comparison of Mean Values Between Sites in Namibia

Variation Within Sites

Fruit Mass

Pulp Mass

Frequency Distribution

Discussion

Acknowledgments

23 Domestication Potential of Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) in South Africa and Namibia: 2. Phenotypic Variatio...

SUMMARY

Introduction

Methods and Materials

Results

Variation Between Sites

Comparison of Mean Values Between South Africa and Namibia

Comparison of Mean Values Between Sites in South Africa

Comparison of Mean Values Between Land Uses in South Africa

Comparison of Mean Values Between Sites in Namibia

Variation Within Sites

Nut and Kernel Mass

Number of Kernels

Oil Content

Frequency Distribution

Discussion

Acknowledgments

24 Domestication Potential of Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) in South Africa and Namibia: 3. Multiple Trait Sele...

SUMMARY

Introduction

Methods and Materials

Results

Ratios

Relationships Between Traits

Development of Ideotypes

Discussion

Acknowledgments

5.4 Techniques: Ideotypes

25 The “Ideotype Concept” and its Application to the Selection of “AFTP” Cultivars

Summary

Introduction

Domestication of Agroforestry Trees

Ideotypes in Agroforestry Species

Fruit/Nut Crops

Kunzea pomifera (Muntries)

Irvingia gabonensis (Bush mango)

Sclerocarya birrea (Marula)

Dacryodes edulis (African plum/Safou)

Timber/Wood Crops

Triplochiton scleroxylon (Obeche/Wawa)

Santalum spp. (Sandalwood)

Conclusion

26 Trees: Skills and Understanding Essential for Domestication: An Update

Strategy

Vegetative Propagation

Genetic Characterization

Ideotypes

IV. Towards Delivery

6 A Bottom-Up Approach

6.1 Participatory Tree Domestication

27 The Participatory Domestication of West African Indigenous Fruits

Summary

Introduction

Participatory Domestication

Are Subsistence Farmers Interested in Domestication?

Characterization of Intraspecific Variation in Fruit and Kernel Characteristics

Methods

Results and Discussion

The Levels of Diversity Available to Farmers Within Their Community

The Levels of Selection Intensity Being Applied by Farmers

The Level of Market Recognition of Variability in Fruit or Kernel Traits

Impact and Strategic Importance

Potential for Wider Application of Participatory Domestication

Acknowledgments

28 Agroforestry—Participatory Domestication of Trees

SUMMARY

Introduction

Strategy

Biological Components of the Strategy

Propagation of Superior Trees

Genetic Resource Issues

Environmental Components of the Strategy

Social Components of the Strategy

Commercial Components of the Strategy

Techniques

Biological Components of the Techniques

Genetic Selection

Vegetative Propagation and Stockplant Management

Nursery Management

Predictive Test for Domestication of Timber Trees by Vegetative Propagation

Nursery Management Strategy

Environmental Components of the Techniques

Social Components of the Techniques

Commercial Components of the Techniques

Outcomes

Biological Components of the Outcomes

Environmental Components of the Outcomes

Social Components of the Outcomes

Commercial Components of the Outcomes

Future Impact

Biological Components of the Impact

Integrated Environmental, Social, and Economic Components of the Impact

6.2 Intellectual Property Rights

29 Protecting the Rights of Farmers and Communities While Securing Long Term Market Access for Producers of Non-timber Fore...

SUMMARY

Introduction

Phytotrade Africa’s Experience

Case Studies

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra)

Baobab (Adansonia digitata)

Issues for Further Attention

Link the Success of Opening New Markets for NWFPs to the Domestication of AFTPs

Intellectual Property Rights for Protection of Farmer’s Germplasm

Conclusion

6.3 Commercialization of Agroforestry Tree Products

30 The Role of Tree Domestication in Value Chain Development

SUMMARY

Introduction

The Domestication–Commercialization Continuum

Toward Sustainable and Multifunctional Agriculture

Toward a Resilient Green Market for Agroforestry Tree Products and Agroforestry Systems

Conclusion

6.4 Development and Impact

31 Underutilised Species as the Backbone of Multifunctional Agriculture—The Next Wave of Crop Domestication

SUMMARY

Introduction

Multifunctional Agriculture and the Role of Agroforestry

Domestication of Plant Species

Strategies of Domestication for Agroforestry Trees

Constraints to Domestication

Putting Tree Domestication Into Practice

Retention and Protection of Genetic Diversity

Social, Economic, and Environmental Benefits of Domestication

Integrating Domesticates Into the Cropping System

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

32 Trees: Ensuring That Farmers Benefit From Domestication: An Update

7 Agroforestry: A Delivery Mechanism for Multifunctional Agriculture

33 Trees, Soils and Food Security

Summary

Introduction

Impact of Trees on Soil Functions

Increased Nutrient Inputs

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Deep Nitrate Capture

Biomass Transfer

Enhanced Nutrient Cycling

Soil Organic Nitrogen

Soil Organic Phosphorus

Decreased Nutrient Losses From the Soil

Environmental Benefits

Soil Conservation

Biodiversity Conservation

Carbon Sequestration

Trees and Overcoming Rural Poverty in Africa

Soil Fertility Replenishment

Intensifying and Diversifying Land Use Through Tree Domestication

Enabling Policies

The Way Forward

34 Addressing the Causes of Land Degradation, Food/Nutritional Insecurity and Poverty: A New Approach to Agricultural Inten...

35 Trees: A Call to Policy Makers to Meet Farmers’ Needs by Combining Environmental Services With Marketable Products: An U...

8 Sustainable Intensification of Tropical Agriculture

36 The Intensification of Agroforestry by Tree Domestication for Enhanced Social and Economic Impact

Summary

Introduction

Three Steps to Intensification

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

37 Twelve Principles for Better Food and More Food From Mature Perennial Agroecosystems

Summary

Introduction

Principles

Principle 1: Ask Farmers What They Want, Do Not Tell Them What They Should Do

Principle 2: Provide Appropriate Skills and Understanding, Not Unsustainable Infrastructure

Principle 3: Build on Local Culture, Tradition, and Markets

Principle 4: Use Appropriate Technology and Indigenous Perennial Species

Principle 5: Encourage Species and Genetic Diversity

Principle 6: Encourage Gender and Age Equity

Principle 7: Encourage Farmer-to-Farmer Dissemination

Principle 8: Promote New Business and Employment Opportunities

Principle 9: Understand and Solve Underlying Problems—The Big Picture

Principle 10: Rehabilitate Degraded Land and Reverse Social Deprivation: Close the Yield Gap

Principle 11: Promote “Multifunctional Agriculture” for Environmental/Social/Economic Sustainability and Relief of Hunger, ...

Principle 12: Encourage Integrated Rural Development

Sustainable Intensification

38 Trees: Delivering Productive and Sustainable Farming Systems: An Update

9 Integrating Rural Development to Deliver Multifunctional Agriculture

39 Toward Multifunctional Agriculture – An African Initiative

SUMMARY

Introduction

What are the Issues?

Target 1: Recognize Need for Different Approaches—Both Agronomic and Economic

Target 2: Restore and Maintain Soil Fertility for Sustained High-level Production

Target 3: Restore and Maintain Agroecological Processes for Sustained and Resilient Production

Target 4: Domesticate and Improve Indigenous Species as New Crops for: (1) Better Nutrition and (2) Income Generation

Target 5: Close the Yield Gap by Addressing Local Supply Side and Livelihood Problems

Target 6: Provide Training in Rural Communities to Enhance Their Capacity to Implement Technologies Relevant to Sustainable...

Target 7: Achieve Energy Security Without Environmental Damage

Target 8: Reduce and Eliminate Waste

Target 9: Promote Integrated Livestock Management in Drylands and Animal Welfare

Target 10: Maintain Landscape Functions

Target 11: Maintain Global Functions

Having Identified Action-oriented Targets for Sustainable Intensification, Where Do We Go From Here?

40 Trees: Meeting the Social, Economic and Environmental Needs of Poor Farmers—Scoring Sustainable Development Goals: An Update

References

Index

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