Chapter
1.4 - Nanoencapsulation of food ingredients and nutraceuticals
1.5 - Nanoencapsulation techniques
1.5.1 - Lipid-formulation nanoencapsulation technologies
1.5.1.1 - Encapsulation by nanoemulsions (Chapter 2)
1.5.1.2 - Encapsulation by nanoliposomes (Chapter 3)
1.5.1.3 - Encapsulation by nanostructured lipid carriers (Chapter 4)
1.5.2 - Nanoencapsulation technologies based on natural nanocarriers
1.5.2.1 - Nanocapsule formation by caseins (Chapter 5)
1.5.2.2 - Nanocapsule formation by nanocrystals (Chapter 6)
1.5.2.3 - Nanocapsule formation by cyclodextrins (Chapter 7)
1.5.2.4 - Nanoencapsulation by amylose nanostructures
1.5.3 - Nanoencapsulation technologies based on specialized equipment
1.5.3.1 - Nanocapsule formation by electrospinning (Chapter 8)
1.5.3.2 - Nanocapsule formation by electrospraying (Chapter 9)
1.5.3.3 - Nanocapsule formation by nanospray dryer (Chapter 10)
1.5.4 - Nanoencapsulation technologies based on biopolymer nanoparticles
1.5.4.1 - Nanocapsule formation by individual biopolymer nanoparticles (Chapter 11)
1.5.4.1.1 - Protein nanoparticles
1.5.4.1.2 - Carbohydrate nanoparticles
1.5.4.2 - Nanocapsule formation by complexation of biopolymers (Chapter 12)
1.5.5 - Other nanoencapsulation technologies
1.5.5.1 - Nanoencapsulation by protein nanotubes
1.5.5.2 - Nanoencapsulation by carbohydrate nanogels
1.6 - Conclusions and final remarks
Part One - Lipid-Formulation Based Nanoencapsulation Technologies
2 - Encapsulation by nanoemulsions
2.2 - Materials used for preparing nanoemulsions
2.3 - Preparation methods
2.3.1 - High energy methods
2.3.1.1 - High speed and high shear homogenizers
2.3.1.2 - High pressure valve homogenization
2.3.1.4 - Ultrasound-based devices
2.3.2 - Low energy methods
2.3.2.1 - Phase inversion by phase mixing
2.3.2.2 - Phase inversion by altering the conditions of the phase
2.3.2.3 - Membrane emulsification
2.4 - Structural emulsions
2.5.1 - Types of double emulsions
2.5.1.1 - W/O/W emulsions
2.5.1.2 - O/W/O emulsions
2.5.1.3 - O/W/W emulsions
2.5.2 - Formulation of double emulsions
2.5.3 - Stabilizing double emulsions
2.5.3.1 - Stabilizing primary emulsion
2.5.3.2 - Stabilizing secondary emulsion
2.5.3.3 - Controlling osmotic pressure
2.5.4 - Application of double emulsions
2.6 - Conclusions and further remarks
3 - Encapsulation by nanoliposomes
3.2 - Design of liposomes
3.2.1 - MFGM phospholipids
3.2.4 - Phenolic compounds
3.3 - Determination of encapsulation efficiency
3.4 - Encapsulation of hydrophilic materials
3.4.1 - Phenolic compounds
3.4.2 - Bioactive peptides
3.5 - Encapsulation of hydrophobic materials
3.5.1 - Hydrophobic polyphenols
3.6 - Novel techniques in the design of nanoliposomes
3.6.2 - Supercritical CO2 technologies
3.6.3 - Combinatorial methods
3.6.4 - Drying of liposomes
3.6.5 - Interactions with mucus
3.7 - Phytosomes: highly efficient delivery of phytochemicals
3.8 - Incorporation into food systems
3.8.1 - Vitamins and minerals
3.8.2 - Phenolic compounds
3.9 - Bioactivities of nanoliposomal encapsulation systems
3.9.1 - Antimicrobial activity
3.9.1.1 - Antimicrobial peptides
3.9.2 - Anticarcinogenic activities
3.9.2.1 - Phenolic compounds and carotenoids
3.9.2.2 - Tea polyphenols
3.9.2.3 - Bioactive polysaccharides
3.9.3 - Other bioactivities demonstrated by liposomal dispersions
3.10 - Digestion of bioactive bearing nanoliposomes
3.10.1 - In vitro digestion
3.11 - Conclusions and future perspectives
4 - Encapsulation by nanostructured lipid carriers
4.2 -
The logic behind the development of solid lipid nanoparticles
4.3 - First two generations of lipid nanoparticles: SLN vs. NLC
4.4 - The third generation: smartLipids
4.5 -
Selection of ingredients for SLN/NLC production—screening
4.6 - Industrial relevant production processes: high pressure homogenization on lab scale
4.7 - Medium and large scale industrial production
4.8 - Regulatory aspects—nanotechnology
4.9 - Chemical stabilization of actives
4.10 - Controlled release—structures of particle matrix
4.11 - Oral delivery in mouth cavity—mechanisms
4.12 -
Peroral bioavailability enhancement—mechanism and efficiency
4.13 -
Examples of SLN and NLC formulations from food industry
4.14 - Examples of oral bioavailability enhancement
4.15 - Lipid nanoparticle products on the market
4.16 -
Commercial suppliers of lipid nanoparticle concentrates
4.17 - Perspectives for food and nutraceutical products
Part Two - Natural Nanocarrier-BasedNanoencapsulation Technologies
5 - Nanocapsule formation by caseins
5.1.1 - Milk caseins, structure and composition
5.1.2 - Chemistry of caseins
5.1.3 - Why choosing caseins as nanodelivery vehicles?
5.2 -
Nanoencapsulation of food bioactive components and nutraceuticals by caseins
5.2.1 - Encapsulation by caseins through binding with ions
5.2.2 -
Encapsulation of hydrophobic molecules and other molecules by caseins
5.2.2.1 - Encapsulation by caseins through hydrophobic interactions
5.2.2.2 -
Encapsulation by caseins through self-assembly and reassembly mechanisms combined with hydrophobic interactions ...
5.2.3 - Surface activity of caseins
5.2.4 - Interaction of caseins with other biopolymers
5.3 - Advantages and disadvantages
5.4 - Insight for future work
6 - Nanocapsule formation by nanocrystals
6.2 - Definitions of nanocrystals
6.3 - Special properties of nanocrystals
6.4 - Mechanisms of absorption enhancement
6.5 - Encapsulated (coated) nanocrystals
6.6 - Lab scale and industrial scale production of nanocrystals
6.7 - Nanocrystals in functional drinks
6.8 - Nanocrystal technology in oral nutraceutical products
6.9 - Nanocrystal technology in food products
6.10 - Conclusions and perspectives
7 - Nanocapsule formation by cyclodextrins
7.1 - Historical background of cyclodextrins
7.2 - Regulatory issues of cyclodextrins
7.3 - Principles of encapsulation by cyclodextrins
7.4 - Encapsulation technologies with cyclodextrins
7.4.1 - Dry mixing (physical blending) method
7.4.2 - Milling/cogrinding method
7.4.4 - Coprecipitation method
7.4.5 - Slurry-complexation method
7.4.6 - Paste complexation method
7.4.7 - Solvent evaporation (coevaporation/solid dispersion) method
7.4.8 - Damp mixing and heating method
7.4.9 - Neutralization precipitation method
7.4.10 - High-pressure homogenization method
7.4.11 - Freeze drying (lyophilization) method
7.4.12 - Spray drying (atomization) method
7.4.13 - Microwave irradiation method
7.4.14 - Supercritical antisolvent method
7.4.15 - Extrusion method
7.4.16 - Gas–liquid method
7.5 - Selecting an encapsulation technology with cyclodextrins
7.6 - Cyclodextrin modification
7.7 - Amphiphilic cyclodextrins
7.7.1 - Nonionic amphiphilic cyclodextrins (NIA-CDs)
7.7.2 - Cationic amphiphilic cyclodextrins (CA-CDs)
7.7.3 - Anionic amphiphilic cyclodextrins (AA-CDs)
7.8 - Nanoencapsulation with amphiphilic cyclodextrins
7.8.1 - Nanoprecipitation technique
7.8.2 - Emulsion/solvent evaporation technique
7.8.3 - Detergent removal technique
7.9 - Effective factors on the characteristics of amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles
7.10 - Formation techniques of the cyclodextrin-based polymeric nanoparticles
7.10.1 - Physicochemical processes
7.10.1.1 - Dialysis method
7.10.1.2 - Emulsion solvent diffusion (spontaneous emulsification) method
7.10.1.3 - Ionic gelation (coacervation) method
7.10.1.4 - Spray drying method
7.10.2 - Chemistry based processes
7.10.2.1 - Emulsion polymerization method
7.10.2.2 - Microemulsion polymerization method
7.10.2.3 - Interfacial polycondensation method
7.11 - Cyclodextrin-based magnetic nanoparticles
7.12 - Layer by layer (LBL): an ideal process to form nanoparticles
7.12.1 - β-Cyclodextrin-modified Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles by LBL method
7.12.2 - Cyclodextrin-based biodegradable polyelectrolyte nanocapsules by LBL method
7.13 - Cyclodextrins in gold nanoparticles
7.14 - Concluding remarks and future trends
Part Three - Nanoencapsulation TechnologiesBased on Special Equipment
8 - Nanocapsule formation by electrospinning
8.2 - Principles of electrospinning
8.3 - Electrospinning versus electrospraying
8.4 - The electrospinning process
8.4.1 - Polymer solution properties
8.4.1.1 - Polymer concentration, molecular weight, and fiber morphology
8.4.1.2 - Electrical conductivity
8.4.1.3 - Effect of solvents
8.4.2 - Processing conditions
8.4.2.3 - Diameter of the spinneret orifice
8.4.2.4 - Spinneret tip to collector distance
8.4.3 - Ambient conditions
8.5 - The physical elements of electrospinning and typical apparatus
8.5.1 - Coaxial electrospinning
8.6 - Base encapsulating materials for electrospinning
8.6.1 - Protein-based encapsulating materials used in electrospinning
8.6.2 - Electrospinning carbohydrate-based encapsulants
8.6.3 - Electrospinning lipid-based encapsulants
8.6.4 - Synthetic encapsulating materials used in electrospinning
8.6.5 - Applying electrospinning in the food industry
8.7 - Conclusions and future trends
9 - Nanocapsule formation by electrospraying
9.2 - Electrospraying: an overview
9.3 - Types of electrospraying
9.3.1 - Conventional electrospraying
9.3.2 - Electrospraying in solution
9.3.3 - Coaxial electrospraying
9.3.4 - Electrospraying deposition technique
9.4 - Parameters for obtaining micro- and nanoparticles
9.4.1 - Equipment parameters
9.4.1.1 - Electric potential
9.4.1.3 - Collector distance (L)
9.4.2 - Solution parameters
9.4.2.4 - Electric conductivity
9.4.3 - Environmental parameters
9.4.3.1 - Relative humidity (RH)
9.5 - Obtaining materials by electrospraying for the food and nutraceutical industries
9.5.1 - Obtaining intelligent packaging and edibles films
9.5.2 - Obtaining of nanostructures based on food polymeric materials
9.6 - Encapsulation of nutraceuticals
10 - Nanocapsules formation by nano spray drying
10.2.1 - Droplet generation
10.2.2 - Drying of droplets
10.2.3 - Particle collection
10.3 - Optimizing the Nano Spray Drying Process Parameters
10.3.1 - Influences of process parameters
10.3.2 - Drying gas flow rate, humidity and temperature
10.3.5 - Solid concentration
10.3.8 - Organic solvent instead of water
10.3.9 - Particle morphologies
10.3.10 - Encapsulation efficiency and active compounds loading
10.3.11 - Controlled release of active compounds
10.3.12 - Stability of active compounds during nano spray drying
10.3.13 - Storage stability
10.3.14 - Challenges in nano spray drying
10.4 - Nano spray drying applications
10.4.1 - Food and nutraceutical applications
10.4.2 - Drug delivery applications
10.4.3 - Material science applications
Part Four - NanoencapsulationTechnologies Based onBiopolymer Nanoparticles
11 - Nanocapsule formation by individual biopolymer nanoparticles
11.2 - Protein nanoparticles (desolvation method)
11.2.1 - Principles of the desolvation process
11.2.2 - Effect of the operational parameters on the nanoparticles characteristics prepared by desolvation method
11.2.2.2 - Amount and addition rate of the desolvating agent
11.2.2.3 - Type of the desolvating agent
11.2.2.4 - Concentration of the desolvating agent
11.2.2.6 - Cross-linking conditions (type, concentration, and time)
11.2.2.8 - The effect of pH value on the desolvation process
11.2.2.9 - Protein concentration
11.2.2.11 - Ionic strength
11.2.3 - Production of nanoparticles from different protein sources
11.2.3.1 - Nanoparticles from animal proteins
11.2.3.1.4 - Milk proteins
11.2.3.1.4.2 - Whey proteins
11.2.3.1.4.3 - Silk proteins
11.2.3.2 - Nanoparticles from plant proteins
11.2.4 - Encapsulation of different food components within protein nanoparticles
11.2.4.8 - Drugs and others bioactive compounds
11.3 - Polysaccharide nanoparticles (nanoprecipitation method)
11.3.1 - Principles of the nanoprecipitation method
11.3.2 - Encapsulation of different bioactive components within polysaccharide nanoparticles
12 - Nanocapsule formation by complexation of biopolymers
12.2 - Molecular forces between biopolymers and factors affecting them
12.3 - Application of biopolymer complexes in nanoencapsulation technology
12.3.1 - Nanoencapsulation using structures derived from protein and polysaccharide interactions
12.3.2 - Nanoencapsulation using polysaccharide + polysaccharide complexes
12.3.3 - Nanoencapsulation using protein + protein complexes
12.4 - Conclusions and future trends
Part Five - Bioavailability, Characterization, and Safety of Nano-Encapsulated Ingredients
13 - Bioavailability and release of bioactive components from nanocapsules
13.1 - Overview of release
13.2 - Release mechanisms
13.3 - Bioavailability of nutraceuticals and their uptake in gut
13.3.1 - Bioavailability of nutraceuticals
13.3.2 - Enhancers and inhibitors of nutrient bioavailability
13.3.3 - Impact of host factors
13.3.4 - Scaling absorption, metabolism, and tissues affected by nutrients
13.3.6 - Molecules influencing the mucoadhesion process
13.3.7 - Nutrient transfer across the mucus layer
13.4 - Different approaches for studying the release profile
13.5.1 - Mathematical modeling
13.5.2 - Intelligent modeling
13.6.1 - Factors affecting the targeted release
13.6.2 - Ligand-receptor-based interaction and delivery systems
14 - Instrumental analysis and characterization of nanocapsules
14.2 - Morphology of nanocapsules
14.2.1 - Electron microscopy
14.2.2 - Confocal laser scanning microscopy
14.2.3 - Atomic force microscopy
14.3 - Size of nanocapsules
14.3.1 - Dynamic light scattering
14.3.2 - Static light scattering
14.3.3 - Gravitational settling and centrifugation
14.3.4 - Laser-induced breakdown detection
14.4 - Electric charge of nanocapsules
14.5 - Surface component of nanocapsules
14.6 - Physicochemical properties of nanocapsules
14.6.1 - X-ray diffraction
14.6.3 - Differential scanning calorimetry
14.6.4 - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
14.6.5 - Nuclear magnetic resonance
14.7 - Stability of nanocapsules
14.7.1 - Storage stability testing
14.7.2 - Accelerated stability tests
14.8 - Image analysis of nanocapsules
14.9 - Fluorescence spectroscopy of nanocapsules
15 - Safety and regulatory issues of nanocapsules
15.2 - Safety and toxicity aspects of food nanoparticles
15.2.1 - Separation and identification of nanocapsules after the process of digestion/absorption
15.2.2 - Typical mechanisms of nanoparticle toxicity in the GI tract
15.2.2.1 - Protein corona
15.2.2.2 - Oxidative stress
15.2.2.3 - Stimulating the immune system and developing inflammation
15.2.3 - In vivo and in vitro assays for predicting the safety of food-based nanomaterials
15.2.3.1 - In vitro studies
15.2.3.2 - In vivo studies
15.3 - Regulatory principles legislated by various organizations and countries
15.3.1 - European countries
15.3.1.1 - The European Union (EU)
15.3.1.2 - Non-EU countries
15.3.5 - Australia and New Zealand
15.4 - Panorama and challenges for the future
15.4.1 - Enhancing marketing and positive attitudes toward nanoengineered materials in food industry
15.4.1.1 - Trust of consumers toward nanofood products
15.4.1.2 - Emotions and their effect on selecting nanofood products
15.4.1.3 - Provision of fair information
15.4.1.4 - Power of attitude versus uncertainty
15.4.1.5 - Predicting the market for food nanotechnology in near future
15.4.2 - Health promotion and manufacturing high-quality foods through the administration of nanomaterials
15.4.3 - Environmental concerns
15.4.3.1 - Project DaNa2.0
Nanoencapsulation Technologies for the Food and Nutraceutical Industries
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