Front Cover

ALGAL GREEN CHEMISTRY

ALGAL GREEN CHEMISTRY: RECENT PROGRESS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

Contents

Contributors

Editor's Biography

Preface

1 - Osmoprotectant and Sunscreen Molecules From Halophilic Algae and Cyanobacteria

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OSMOPROTECTANTS AND SUNSCREEN MOLECULES (MAA)

2.1 Basic Features of Osmoprotectants in Cyanobacteria and Algae

2.2 Saccharides and Their Derivatives

2.2.1 Glucosylglycerol and Glucosylglycerate

2.2.2 Biosynthetic Pathway

2.3 Glycine Betaine

2.3.1 Accumulation and Response to Environment

2.3.2 Biosynthetic Pathway

2.3.3 Regulation of Related Enzyme Activity and Gene Expression

2.4 Glycerol

2.4.1 Accumulation and Response to Environment

2.4.2 Biosynthesis Pathway

2.5 Dimethylsulfoniopropionate

2.5.1 Accumulation and Response to Environment

2.5.2 Biosynthetic Pathway

2.5.3 Omics Approaches to Identify DMSP Biosynthetic Enzymes and Genes

2.6 Basic Features of Mycosporines and MAAs

2.7 Biosynthetic Pathway of MAAs

2.7.1 Genes and Proteins Responsible for Biosynthesis of MAAs

2.7.2 Regulation of Biosynthesis of MAAs

2.7.2.1 UNDER UV RADIATION

2.7.2.2 UNDER ABIOTIC STRESSES

2.8 Biological Function of Mycosporines and MAAs

2.8.1 Sunscreen Role

2.8.2 Osmoprotectant Role

2.8.3 Antioxidant Role

2.8.4 Roles of MAAs in Halotolerant Cyanobacteria

3. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

References

2 - UV Photoprotectants From Algae—Synthesis and Bio-Functionalities

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PHOTOPROTECTANTS FROM ALGAE

2.1 Mycosporine-like Amino Acids

2.2 The Glycosylated MAAs

3. OCCURRENCE OF MAAS

3.1 MAAs From Cyanobacteria (Blue Green Algae)

3.2 MAAs From Eukaryotic Micro-/Macroalgae

3.2.1 Chlorophyceae

3.2.2 Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)

3.2.3 Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)

3.2.4 Bacillariophyceae, Dinophyceae, and Haptophyceae

4. GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF MAAS BIOSYNTHESIS

5. SCYTONEMIN

6. BIO-FUNCTIONALITIES OF MAAS AND SCYTONEMIN

7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgments

References

3 - Genome- and Proteome-Wide Analyses for Targeted Manipulation and Enhancement of Bioproducts in Cyanobacteria

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE SPIRULINA GENOMES

3. TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF GENES INVOLVED IN PRODUCTION OF VALUE-ADDED COMPOUNDS

4. PROTEOME ANALYSIS

4.1 Spirulina Proteome

4.1.1 Bioinformatics Tools for Screening of Bioproduct Synthetic Capability

4.2 Quantitative Proteome Analysis

4.3 Phosphoproteome Analysis

4.4 Bioinformatic Tools in Proteome-Wide Analysis

4.5 Protein–Protein Interaction Networking and Bioinformatic Tools for the Analysis

4.6 Molecular Chaperones in Relation to Production of BioProducts by Bacteria

4.7 Involvement of GroEL2 in Cellular Protein Networks and in silico Translation of Phosphoproteome Data Obtained From One Spec ...

4.8 Bi-Level Temperature-Responsive Subnetwork

4.9 Pathway Visualization

4.9.1 Bioinformatics Tools for Pathway Visualization

4.9.2 An Example of the Platform Application for High Value Chemical Production

5. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgments

References

4 - Nutraceuticals From Algae and Cyanobacteria

1. INTRODUCTION

2. NUTRACEUTICALS AND FUNCTIONAL FOOD FROM ALGAE

2.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

2.1.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids

2.1.2 Chemistry of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

2.1.3 Health Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

2.1.4 Algal Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

2.2 Omega-6 Fatty Acids

2.3 Algal Pigments and Its Nutraceutical Values

2.3.1 Chemistry of Algal Carotenoids

2.3.2 Microalgae as Source of Carotenoids

2.3.2.1 β-CAROTENE

2.3.2.2 ASTAXANTHIN

2.3.2.3 LUTEIN

2.4 Chlorophyll Pigments as Natural Colorant

2.5 Pigment-Protein Complexes

2.5.1 Phycobiliproteins

2.5.2 Phycocyanin

2.5.3 Phycobilins

2.5.4 Phycoerythrins

2.6 Vitamins

2.7 Polysaccharides

2.8 Mycosporine and Mycosporine-like Amino acids

2.9 Bioactive Peptides and Proteins

3. NUTRITIONALLY IMPORTANT ALGAE

3.1 Haematococcus pluvialis

3.2 Chlorella

3.3 Spirulina

3.4 Nannochloropsis

4. CONCLUSION

References

5 - Natural Antioxidants From Algae: A Therapeutic Perspective

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OXIDATIVE STRESS

2.1 Oxidative Stress–Associated Irregularities in Mitochondria

2.2 Mitochondrial Irregularities Result in Life-Threatening Diseases

3. WHY ALGAE?

4. ALGAL ANTIOXIDANTS

4.1 Phycobiliproteins

4.2 Phlorotannins

4.3 Carotenoids

4.4 Sulfated Polysaccahrides

4.5 Scytonemin

4.6 Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgments

References

6 - Microalgae as a Source of Bioplastics

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DIRECT USE OF MICROALGAE BIOMASS FOR BIOPLASTIC PURPOSES

2.1 Blending Microalgal Biomass With Petroleum Plastics

2.2 Blending Microalgal Biomass With Bioplastics

2.3 Microalgae Biomass as a Feedstock for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production

2.4 Biorefinery Approach to Producing PHAs

2.5 Hydrolysis of Microalgae Biomass for PHA Production

3. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF ALGAL STRAINS FOR PHA PRODUCTION

4. FUTURE OUTLOOK

References

7 - Microalgae-Based Carotenoids Production

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CAROTENOID SYNTHESIS PATHWAYS

2.1 β-Carotene

2.2 Astaxanthin

3. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CAROTENOGENESIS

4. EXTRACTION OF PIGMENTS

5. APPLICATIONS OF CAROTENOIDS

6. FUTURE PROSPECTS

References

8 - Low-Molecular-Weight Nitrogenous Compounds (GABA and Polyamines) in Blue–Green Algae

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GABA BIOSYNTHESIS

2.1 GABA Formation via Glutamate Catabolism

2.2 GABA Formation via Spermidine Catabolism

3. GABA CATABOLISM

4. ROLE OF GABA AGAINST PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESSES

5. POLYAMINE BIOSYNTHESIS

6. POLYAMINE CATABOLISM

7. ROLE OF POLYAMINES AGAINST PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESSES

8. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

References

9 - Algal Pigments for Human Health and Cosmeceuticals

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ALGAL PIGMENTS

2.1 Chlorophylls

2.2 Carotenoids

2.3 Phycobiliproteins

2.3.1 Phycoerythrin

2.3.2 Phycocyanin

2.3.3 Allophycocyanin

3. HEALTH BENEFITS OF ALGAL PIGMENTS

3.1 Algal Pigments as Antioxidants and Immune Boosters

3.2 Algal Pigments as Anticarcinogens

3.3 Antiinflammatory Activity of Algal Pigments

3.4 Neuroprotective Activity of Algal Pigments

3.5 Antiobesity Property of Algal Pigments

3.6 Algal Pigments as Antiaging Compounds, Skin, and Photo Protective Agents

4. APPLICATION IN COSMETICS AND SKIN CARE

4.1 Commercial Application as Cosmeceuticals

4.2 Prospects of Algal Pigments in Skin-Care Products

5. OTHER ALGAL COMPOUNDS AS COSMECEUTICALS

6. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

References

10 - Role of Algae as a Biofertilizer

1. INTRODUCTION

2. EMERGENCE OF ALGAE AS BIOFERTILIZER

3. ALGAL DIVERSITY IN PADDY FIELDS

4. EFFECT ON SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

4.1 Algae as Biofertilizer Influences Soil Aggregation and Soil Porosity

4.2 Effect on Soil pH and Chelation of Soil Elements

4.3 Influence on Microbial Community

5. ROLE OF ALGAE IN AMELIORATION OF SODIC SOIL

6. GENETICALLY MODIFIED ALGAE WITH POTENTIAL IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgment

References

11 - Modeling and Technoeconomic Analysis of Algae for Bioenergy and Coproducts

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MODELING OF ALGAE PROCESSES FOR BIOENERGY AND COPRODUCTS

2.1 Photosynthetic Factory

2.2 Algae “Pure” Kinetics on CO2 and/or Real Flue Gas

2.3 CO2(aq) Concentrating Mechanism in Algae

2.4 Medium Optimization for Culturing of Microalgae

2.5 CO2 Sequestration From Flue Gas and Addition of Nutrients From Wastewaters in Order to Minimize the Costs

2.6 Light Availability—The Most Important State Parameter

2.7 Complex Approach for Modeling of Closed PBRs

2.8 Conclusions on Modeling PBRs and CO2 Sequestration From Flue Gas by Microalgae With the Goal of Cost-Effective Biofuel Prod ...

3. TECHNICAL-ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF ALGAE FOR BIOENERGY AND COPRODUCTS

3.1 CO2 Sequestration–Life Cycle Assessment

3.2 Upstream Processes

3.2.1 Flue Gas Direct Use or Pretreatment

3.2.2 Culture Medium Development

3.2.3 Low-Cost Residual Nutrient Sources

3.2.4 Development of Nutrient Media for Culturing Algae

3.3 Microalgae Cultivation Techniques

3.3.1 Microalgae Species

3.3.2 Microalgae Strain Selection

3.3.3 Metabolic Engineering Techniques and Cultivation Strategies

3.4 Bioreactors Configuration

3.5 Operational Conditions

3.6 Downstream Processes

3.6.1 Biomass Harvesting and Concentration

3.6.2 Processing and Components Extraction

3.7 Biomass Conversion

3.8 Coproducts

4. CONCLUSIONS

5. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgments

References

12 - Polyamines: Stress Metabolite in Marine Macrophytes

1. INTRODUCTION

2. POLYAMINE METABOLISM AND BIOLOGICAL ROLE IN MARINE MACROPHYTES

3. POLYAMINE ANALYSIS IN MARINE MACROPHYTES

4. INVOLVEMENT OF POLYAMINE IN MARINE MACROPHYTES UNDER STRESS CONDITIONS

5. METABOLITES' CROSS TALK WITH POLYAMINES NEEDS EXPLORATION IN MARINE MACROPHYTES

6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE

Acknowledgment

References

13 - Microalgal Biomass Cultivation

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Prokaryotic Cells

1.2 Eukaryotic Cells

1.3 Biodiversity and Adaptation

1.4 Biochemical Composition

2. NUTRITION

2.1 Nutritional Modes

2.2 Nutritional Needs

2.3 Growth Media

2.4 Nutrient Supply

3. CULTIVATION MODE

3.1 Batch

3.2 Fed-Batch

3.3 Continuous

3.3.1 Turbidostat

3.3.2 Luminostat

3.3.3 Chemostat

3.4 Performance Comparison—Batch Versus Continuous

4. CULTIVATION SYSTEMS

4.1 Open Systems

4.2 Closed Systems

5. STRATEGIES TO INCREASE COST-EFFECTIVENESS

5.1 Microalgae Selection

5.2 Location Selection

5.3 Cultivation System Selection

5.4 Inducing an Increase in Metabolite Productivity

5.5 Utilization of Waste as Nutrient Source

5.6 Biorefinery Concept

5.7 Genetic Manipulation

6. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Acknowledgments

References

14 - Algal Biofilms and Their Biotechnological Significance

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ROLE IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR BIOREMEDIATION AND NUTRIENT SEQUESTRATION

3. ALGAL BIOFILMS IN AGRICULTURE

4. EXPLORING ALGAL BIOFILMS AS SOURCES OF EXOPOLYSACCHARIDES

5. BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUSTS AND ALGAL BIOFILMS

6. BIOFOULING AND ANTIFOULING

7. ROLE IN BIOREMEDIATION

8. OTHER APPLICATIONS OF ALGAL BIOFILMS

9. FUTURE PROSPECTS

Acknowledgments

References

Index

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