Chapter
Coal CombustionProducts (CCP's): Characteristics, Utilization and Beneficiation
Part One: Nature of coal combustion products
Chapter 1: An introduction to the nature of coal
1.1. Coal formation and rank
1.2. Coal composition and mineralogy
1.3.1. Coal beneficiation processes
1.3.2. Coal beneficiation practice
1.5. Future trends for clean coal technologies
1.5.1. Clean coal technologies ash
Chapter 2: Generation and nature of coal fly ash and bottom ash
2.1. Common types of coal utilization
2.1.1. Pulverized coal and stoker combustion systems
2.1.3. Fluidized bed combustion systems
2.1.4. Coal gasification processes
2.2. Methods for CCP analysis
2.2.1. Physical characterization techniques
2.2.1.1. Particle size distribution
2.2.1.2. Particle density and surface area
2.2.2. Chemical analysis techniques
2.2.2.1. X-ray diffraction
2.2.2.2. Unburnt carbon and loss on ignition
2.2.2.3. Other determinations
2.3. Classification for standards
2.3.1. Basic fly ash classification for use as a cementitious component
2.3.2. Carbon forms in fly ash
2.3.3. Inorganic forms in fly ash and BA
2.3.3.1. Basic chemistry-related ash properties
2.3.3.2. Rock fragments and quartz
2.3.3.3. Fe-bearing minerals
2.3.3.4. High-temperature silicates
2.3.3.5. Glass and included minerals
2.3.3.6. Nonfuel components
2.3.3.7. Mineralogical variation within ash-collection systems
2.3.3.8. Relation of fly ash mineralogy to coal characteristics
2.3.4. Fate of coal major oxides and minor and trace elements
2.3.4.1. Volatility of elements in combustion
2.3.4.3. Selenium and arsenic
2.3.4.4. Rare earth elements
Classification and origin of REY in coal
Assessment criteria for coal ashes as REY raw materials
2.3.5. Ash formation in FBC
2.3.6. Ash and slag formation during coal gasification
2.3.6.1. Fixed-bed gasifier
Entrained-flow bed gasifier
Chapter 3: Flue-gas desulfurization products and other air emissions controls
3.2.1.1. Forced oxidation systems
3.2.1.2. Inhibited- or low-natural oxidation FGD systems
3.2.2.1. Spray dryer absorber and CFB absorber systems
3.2.2.2. Dry injection systems
3.2.2.3. Furnace sorbent injection systems
3.3.1. Dry sorbent injection
3.3.1.1. Hydrated lime powder injection
3.3.1.2. Sodium-based DSI
3.3.2. Aqueous SBS injection
3.3.3. Magnesium-based sorbent injection
3.4.1. Combustion modifications/low-NOX burners
3.4.2. Ammonia injection processes
3.4.2.1. Selective catalytic reduction
3.4.2.2. Selective noncatalytic reduction
3.4.2.3. Rich reagent injection
3.4.2.4. Impacts of ammonia injection on CCPs
3.5.1. Coremoval with fly ash
3.5.1.1. Activated carbon injection
3.5.1.2. Other technologies
3.5.2. Mercury oxidation and coremoval with FGD by-products
3.5.2.1. Chemical addition
3.5.2.2. Scrubber additives
3.5.2.3. Mercury coremoval in wet ESPs
Part Two: Utilization of coal combustion products
Chapter 4: Introduction to the utilization of coal combustion products
4.2. Utilization in the United States
4.3. Utilization in Australia
4.4. Utilization in Europe
4.5. Utilization in the United Kingdom
4.6. Utilization in Israel
4.7. Utilization in South Africa
4.8. Utilization in India
4.9. Utilization in China
Chapter 5: Coal fly ash as a pozzolan
5.4. Properties of fly ash and bottom ash
5.5. Pozzolanic reaction of fly ash
5.6. Influence of fly ash on the properties of concrete
5.6.1. Fresh concrete properties
5.6.1.1. Workability and water demand
5.6.3. Heat of hydration and rise of temperature
5.6.4. Pore solution composition
5.6.5. Pore structure and permeability
5.6.6. Mechanical properties
5.6.8. Durability of concrete
5.6.8.1. Chloride resistance
5.6.8.3. Alkali-silica reaction
5.6.8.4. Sulfate resistance
5.6.8.5. Freeze-thaw and deicer salt scaling
5.7. Examples of use in concrete
5.8. Specifications for the use of fly ash in concrete
5.9. High-volume fly ash concrete
5.9.1. Mix constituent proportions
5.9.2. Use of fly ash as a cementitious material in other applications
5.10.1. Masonry blocks and concrete
5.10.3. Aerated concrete blocks
5.10.5. Properties of AAC
5.12. Structural pipe bedding
5.13. Slope stabilization
Chapter 6: The utilization of flue-gas desulfurization materials
6.2. Highway applications
6.2.2. Stabilized bases/subbases
6.2.4. Subsidence control and remediation
6.2.5. Manufactured aggregate
6.2.6. Additive in asphalt pavement
6.4. Agricultural applications
6.4.1. Source of Nutrients
6.4.2. Improvement of soil physical and chemical properties of soil
6.4.3. Reduction in the transport of nutrients, sediment, pesticides, and other contaminants
6.5. Cement manufacturing
6.6. Livestock feeding and hay storage pads
6.7. Waste stream pollutant fixation
6.8. Landfill liner and cap
6.9.1. Reclamation of abandoned and active mined lands
6.9.2. Elimination of dangerous highwalls
6.9.4. Refuse and mine spoil reclamation
Chapter 7: Fly ash-based geopolymer chemistry and behavior
7.2. Fly ashes used as precursors for alkali activation
7.2.1. Composition of fly ash
7.2.2. Morphology of fly ash
7.2.4. Life-cycle analysis of AAFA
7.3. AAFA materials: (N,K)-A-S-H gel framework
7.3.1. AAFA nanostructure
7.3.3. Dissolution and reaction mechanisms
7.4. Tailored mix design for targeted properties (activators, class of ash, chemistry trends)
7.5. Structural behavior of AAFA
7.5.1. Engineering properties
7.5.4.1. Pore size and porosity
7.5.4.2. Freeze/thaw resistance
7.5.4.3. Passivation and corrosion of carbon steel reinforcement
7.5.4.5. Alkali aggregate reaction
7.6. Fly ash for lightweight materials
7.7. Commercial adoption of geopolymer concrete
7.8. The case for performance-based standards
Part Three: The beneficiation of coal combustion materials
Chapter 8: Ash beneficiation, quality, and standard criteria
8.2. National ash standards
8.2.1. Fly ash classification
8.2.2. Carbon or loss on ignition
8.2.3. Particle size or fineness
8.2.5. Strength activity index
8.2.6. Other standard criteria
8.3. Beneficiation technologies
8.3.1.1. Selective collection
8.3.1.2. Chemical passivation
8.3.1.3. Air classification
8.3.1.4. Electrostatic separation
8.3.1.5. Thermal beneficiation
8.3.2. Beneficiation and recovery of landfilled and ponded ash
8.3.2.1. Integrated wet ash processing technologies
Chapter 9: Assessing ash quality and performance
9.2. Carbon content and loss on ignition
9.2.2. Air entrainment in concrete
9.2.3. Effect of carbon on air entrainment
9.2.4. Loss on ignition test
9.3. Adsorption-based tests for characterizing carbon in fly ash
9.3.2. Adsorption isotherms
9.3.3. Determination of fly ash iodine number
9.3.4. Determination of direct adsorption isotherm
9.4. Particle size measurement
9.5. Analysis for incompatibilities
9.5.1. Sulfate optimization
9.5.2. High range water reducer incompatibilities
9.6. Setting time delays and their mitigation
9.7. Strength development issues and their mitigation
9.7.1. Strength activity index testing
9.7.2. Keil Hydraulic Index test
Chapter 10: Air classification
10.2. Purposes and beneficiation
10.3. Theory and fundamental parameters
10.3.1. Cyclonic classification
10.3.2. Centrifugal classification
10.6. Alternative technologies
10.6.2. Milling or grinding
10.8. Summary and conclusions
Chapter 11: Electrostatic beneficiation of fly ash
11.1. The benefits and challenges of electrostatic separation
11.2. The importance of fly ash properties in electrostatic separation
11.3. Fundamentals of electrostatics
11.3.1. Particle charging mechanisms
11.3.1.1. Corona charging
11.3.1.2. Induction charging
11.3.1.3. Triboelectric charging
11.3.2. Forces acting on charged particles
11.4. Electrostatic separator concepts to separate unburned carbon from fly ash
11.4.1. Vertical parallel plate separators
11.4.1.1. University of Kentucky laminar flow separator
11.4.1.2. KEPRI turbulent flow separator
11.4.2. Inclined vibrating electrode separators
11.4.2.1. Minerals and Coal Technologies/Korea Fly Ash Company vibrating electrode separator
11.4.2.2. Kawasaki inclined vibrating electrode separator
11.4.3. High-tension roll separator with magnets
11.4.4. Triboelectric belt separator
11.5. Commercial electrostatic separation of unburned carbon from fly ash
11.6. Summary and conclusion
Chapter 12: Thermal processing
12.2. Effects of thermal beneficiation
12.3. Commercial thermal beneficiation
12.3.1. Carbon burnout process
12.3.1.1. Process description
12.3.1.2. Example commercial applications
12.3.2. Staged turbulent air reactor (STAR)
12.3.2.1. Process description
12.3.2.2. Commercial operating experience
Chapter 13: Chemical passivation
13.1.1. Effect of carbon on the use of fly ash
13.1.2. Mitigation of carbon in fly ash
13.1.3. Chemical passivation
13.2. Limitations of traditional testing
13.2.2. Foam index testing
13.2.3. Air in mortar (ASTM C-185)
13.2.4.1. Air content of fresh concrete (ASTM C 231)
13.2.4.2. Air in hardened concrete (ASTM C 457)
13.5. Chemical passivation
Chapter 14: Recovery, processing, and usage of wet-stored fly ash
14.3. Wet-storage effects on fly ash
14.3.1. Stockpile vs. ponded ash
14.3.2. Case studies: Stockpile ash
14.3.3. Case studies: Fly ash in ponds
14.4. Processing of stockpile and ponded ash
14.4.2. Preliminary stages
14.4.5. Hydraulic classification
14.4.6. Magnetic separation and other methods
14.4.7. Thickening and drying
14.4.8. Beneficiated ash in mortar and concrete
14.5. Direct use of stockpile ash in concrete
14.5.2. Engineering properties
14.5.4. Trials with stockpile fly ash in concrete
14.6. Observations and practical issues
Chapter 15: Fly ash refinement and extraction of useful compounds
15.1. Quality improvement
15.1.1. Improving technical quality
15.1.2. Improving environmental quality
15.1.2.1. Supercritical fluid extraction
15.1.2.2. Other technologies
15.2. Extraction of valuable compounds
15.2.1. Production of aluminum from coal ash
15.2.2. Extraction and recovery of V and Ni
15.2.3. Extraction and recovery of Ga, Ge, and associated elements
15.2.4. Extraction of REE and associated elements
15.3. Integral treatment technologies
15.3.1. Conversion into zeolites
Part Four: Coal products and the environment
Chapter 16: Coal products and the environment
16.1. Environmental benefits of coal product recycling
16.2. Risk assessment in the management of coal products
16.3. Ash as an internationally traded commodity and the future of the industry
Chapter 17: Coal combustion products in green building
17.2. What is green building?
17.3. How do CCPs contribute to green products?
17.3.2. Controlled low-strength materials
17.3.5. Soil stabilization
17.4. How coal combustion products are treated in the green building standards
17.4.1. Leadership in energy and environmental LEED
17.4.2. Building life-cycle impact reduction
17.4.3. Building product disclosure and optimization-EPDs
17.4.4. Building product disclosure and optimization-Sourcing of raw materials
17.4.5. Building product disclosure and optimization-Material ingredients
17.5. Measuring impacts of construction materials using LCA
17.5.1. Life-cycle assessment
17.5.2. Example of how fly ash can reduce full life-cycle impacts
17.5.3. Example of how fly ash can reduce embodied impacts
17.6. Standard specifications and project specifications
17.7. Challenges and opportunities for greater use of CCPs
Chapter 18: Coal ash in context
18.4. What constituents are present in coal ash?
18.5. Coal ash constituents in US soils
18.6. Human health risk assessment
18.7. Ecological risk assessment
18.8. What does it mean for something to be toxic?
18.9. How is exposure evaluated?
18.10. Target risk levels
18.10.1. Target risk levels for noncancer effects
18.10.2. Target risk levels for potential cancer effects
18.11. USEPA uses toxicity and exposure information for environmental assessment
18.12. Using USEPA screening levels to evaluate coal ash
18.13. Studies testing the toxicity of coal ash
18.14. Site-specific conceptual site models
18.15. How is risk assessment used on a site-specific basis?
18.16. How common is a complete groundwater drinking water pathway?
18.17. Risk evaluations of the TVA Kingston release
18.18. Evaluations of the Dan River spill in North Carolina
18.18.1. Agricultural study
18.18.2. Health evaluation of the Dan River
18.18.3. Health evaluation of the Kerr Reservoir
18.18.4. Benthic evaluation of the Dan River
18.19. Evaluations of private well water in the vicinity of North Carolina ash ponds
18.19.1. Hexavalent chromium
Chapter 19: Environmental impact and corrective action
19.1. Introduction and context
19.1.1. Context of the TVA and Duke Energy ash spills
19.1.2. The TVA Kingston and Duke Dan River spills-What happened?
19.1.3. Public, legislative, and regulatory scrutiny
19.1.4. Environmental and human health investigations
19.2. Regulatory framework (as relevant for corrective action of surface impoundments)
TVA Kingston environmental investigations
Dan River environmental investigations
19.5. Sustainable closure and postclosure care
Chapter 20: Storage of coal combustion products in the United States: Perspectives on potential human health and environm ...
20.2. History of evaluation of potential human health and ecological risk associated with CCP management
20.3.1. Surface impoundment damage case summary
20.3.2. Landfill damage case summary
20.3.3. Damage case follow-up
20.5.1. Surface impoundments versus landfills
20.5.2. Liners and leachate collection systems
20.6. Hydrogeological environment
20.7. Human health and environmental impacts associated with storing CCP in surface impoundments
20.7.1. Leachate infiltration and groundwater migration
20.7.2. Direct discharge of wastewater and seeps
20.8. Human health and environmental impacts associated with storing CCP in landfills
20.8.1. Landfill management and dust control
20.10. Impacts associated with surface impoundment closure alternatives
Chapter 21: Ash as an internationally traded commodity
21.2. High-volume surplus markets
21.2.1.3. Declines in domestic cement and concrete consumption
21.2.1.5. International trade: Opportunities
21.2.2.5. International trade: Opportunities
21.3. International trade: Challenges
21.3.1. High-quality coastal supplies already contracted
21.3.2. Production moving away from the coast
21.3.3. Road and rail infrastructure
21.3.4. Export infrastructure
21.3.5. Import infrastructure
21.3.5.3. Pneumatic vessels
21.3.6. Environmental and regulatory challenges
21.3.7. Quality and standards
21.4. International trade: Opportunities
21.4.1. Diminishing supplies in key markets
21.4.3. Increased demand for supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) globally
Coal Combustion Products (CCPs)
：Characteristics, Utilization and Beneficiation
Disclaimer: Any content in publications that violate the sovereignty, the constitution or regulations of the PRC is not accepted or approved by CNPIEC.
