Front Cover

The Microbiology of Skin, Soft Tissue, Bone and Joint Infections

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Section I: Skin and Soft Tissue Infections: Diagnosis and Treatment

Chapter 1: Soft Tissue Infections: Consideration Regarding Different International Guidelines

1. Introduction

2. Classification

Surgical Site Infections

Nonnecrotizing SSTIs

Necrotizing SSTIs (NSTIs)

3. Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections

4. Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Evidence-Informed Approach to Pilonidal Sinus Disease and Related Disorders

1. Introduction

2. Pathophysiology

3. Theories of Formation

4. Epidemiology and Risk Factors

5. Types of PSD

5.1. Acute, Infected Abscesses

5.2. Chronic Fistula Cavity

5.3. Asymptomatic PSD

6. Differential Diagnosis

7. Surgical Treatment

8. Other Treatment Considerations

8.1. Pain Management

8.2. Optimal Positioning for Wound Assessment and Care

8.3. Assess for Signs of Localized and Deep Infection

8.4. Antimicrobial Dressings

8.5. Systemic Antimicrobial Selection

8.6. Periwound Decontamination

8.7. Hair Removal

8.8. Debridement

8.9. Dressing Options

8.10. Negative Pressure Wound Therapy

8.11. Optimize Health

8.11.1. Nutrition Needed for Wound Healing

8.12. Assess and Teach re participation in Work, Sports and Exercise

9. Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 3: The Microbiome of Diabetic Foot Ulcers and the Role of Biofilms

1. Diabetic Foot Infection

1.1. Colonization Versus Infection?

1.2. How to Obtain Adequate Cultures for Infected DFUs

1.3. Cultivation-Based Approaches to Defining the Bacteriology of Infected DFUs

1.4. Current Studies Employing Molecular Microbiology for Diabetic Foot Infections

2. Biofilms

2.1. Clinical Significance of Bacterial Biofilms in Chronic Wounds

2.1.1. How Do Biofilms Impede Wound Healing?

2.1.2. Biofilms Sustain Hyperinflammation

2.1.3. Biofilms May Contribute to Localized Areas of Low Oxygen Tension Within a Wound

3. Summary

References

Chapter 4: Cutaneous and Musculoskeletal Complications in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

1. Introduction

2. Infective Complications

2.1. Viral Infections

2.1.1. Human Herpes Viruses

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and 2

HHV-3/Varicella Zoster Virus

HHV-4/Epstein-Barr Virus

HHV-5/Cytomegalovirus

HHV-6 and HHV-7

HHV-8

2.1.2. Merkel Cell Polyomavirus

2.1.3. Poxvirus

2.1.4. Human Papilloma Virus

2.1.5. Hepatitis C Virus

2.2. Bacterial Infections

2.2.1. Syphilis

2.2.2. Staphylococcus aureus

2.2.3. Mycobacteria

2.2.4. Oral Bacteria

2.3. Parasitic Infections

2.3.1. Sarcoptes Scabiei

2.3.2. Leishmania

2.4. Fungal Infections

2.4.1. Candida albicans

2.4.2. Dermatophytes

2.4.3. Cryptococcus neoformans

2.4.4. Histoplasma capsulatum

2.4.5. Aspergillus fumigatus

3. Noninfective Complications

3.1. Malignancies

3.2. Drug Reactions

3.2.1. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and Toxic Epidermal Necrosis

3.2.2. Lipodystrophy

3.2.3. Abacavir Hypersensitivity

3.2.4. Nail and Mucocutaneous Hyperpigmentation

3.2.5. Indinavir-Induced Retinoid-Like Effects

3.2.6. Enfuvirtide-Related Injection-Site Rejection

3.2.7. Drug-Induced Myopathy

3.3. Seborrheic Dermatitis

3.4. Psoriasis

3.5. Psoriatic Arthritis

3.6. Pruritic Papular Eruption

3.7. Eosinophilic Folliculitis

3.8. Reiter's Syndrome (Reactive Arthritis)

3.9. Granuloma Annulare

3.10. HIV-Associated Vasculitides

3.10.1. Polyarteritis Nodosa

3.10.2. Cryoglobulinemia

3.10.3. Henoch-Schönlein Purpura

3.11. Bone Disease

4. Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome

5. Perspectives for Further Research

6. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5: Diseases Caused by Malassezia Species in Human Beings

1. Introduction

2. Ecology of Malassezia Yeasts

3. Malassezia-Associated Skin Diseases

3.1. Pityriasis Versicolor

3.1.1. Predisposing Factors

3.1.2. Pathogenesis

3.1.3. Clinical Findings

3.1.4. Laboratory Examination

3.1.5. Treatment

3.2. Malassezia Folliculitis

3.2.1. Predisposing Factors

3.2.2. Clinical Findings

3.2.3. Treatment

3.3. Seborrheic Dermatitis and Dandruff

3.3.1. Pathogenesis

3.3.2. Treatment

3.4. Atopic Dermatitis

3.4.1. Pathogenesis

3.4.2. Treatment

3.5. Psoriasis

3.6. Other Malassezia-Associated Skin Diseases

4. Systemic and Invasive Infections

5. Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Following Marine Injuries

1. Introduction

2. Epidemiology

2.1. Aeromonas Species

2.2. Chromobacterium violaceum

2.3. Edwardsiella tarda

2.4. Shewanella Species

2.5. Vibrio vulnificus

2.6. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

2.7. Mycobacterium Species

2.8. Streptococcus iniae

3. Control and Prevention of Aquatic Infections

4. Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 7: Gordonia and Related Genera as Opportunistic Human Pathogens Causing Infections of Skin, Soft Tissues, and Bones

1. Introduction

2. Gordonia

2.1. Microbiology and Epidemiology

2.2. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

2.3. Bone and Joint Infections

3. Nocardia

3.1. Microbiology and Epidemiology

3.2. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

3.3. Bone and Joint Infections

4. Rhodococcus

4.1. Microbiology and Epidemiology

4.2. Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

4.3. Bone and Joint Infections

5. Conclusions

References

Section II: Bone and Joint Infections: Diagnosis and Treatment

Chapter 8: The Molecular Mechanics of Inflammatory Bone and Joint Disease Caused by Microbial Infection

1. Introduction

1.1. Classification

1.2. Acute and Chronic Infection

1.3. Microorganisms Involved in Bone Infection

2. Mechanism of Infection

2.1. Hematogenous Infection

2.2. Secondary to Contiguous Focus of Infection

2.2.1. Secondary to Contiguous Focus of Infection Without Vascular Insufficiency

2.2.2. Secondary to Contiguous Focus of Infection with Vascular Insufficiency

3. Site of Infection

3.1. Bone and Cartilage as a Target

4. Current Treatments for Bone Infection

4.1. Antibiotic Treatment

4.2. Surgical Management

5. Bacterial Interaction

5.1. Immune Response Involvement

5.2. Direct Interaction of Microorganisms with ECM and Bone/Cartilage Cells

5.3. Invasion of Nonprofessional Phagocytic Cells and Small Colony Variants

5.4. Non-cell Surface-Associated Proteins

6. Conclusion

References

Further Reading

Chapter 9: Microbiological Diagnosis of Prosthetic Joint Infections

1. Introduction

2. Culture-Based Diagnosis of PJI

2.1. Preoperative Samples

2.2. Intraoperative Samples

3. Molecular Biology-Based Diagnosis of PJI

3.1. Homemade PCR

3.2. Commercial PCR

3.2.1. Commercial PCR Designed for Blood Cultures

3.2.2. Commercial PCR Specifically Designed for the Diagnosis of PJI

4. Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Laboratory Detection of the Emergent Pathogen Kingella kingae in Children With Septic Arthritis

1. Introduction

2. The Organism

3. Pathogenesis of Invasive K. kingae Disease

4. Clinical Presentation of K. kingae Septic Arthritis

5. Culture Detection of K. kingae

5.1. Blood Cultures

5.2. Synovial Fluid Cultures

5.3. Oropharyngeal Cultures

6. Detection of K. kingae by NAAAs

6.1. Use of NAAAS in Synovial Fluid Aspirates

6.2. Use of NAAAs in Oropharyngeal Specimens

7. Conclusions

References

Section III: Alternative and Novel Approaches to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Skin, Soft Tissue, Bone, and Joint Infections

Chapter 11: Nanotechnology for the Treatment of Fungal Infections on Human Skin

1. Introduction

2. Different Types of Skin Infections

2.1. Dermatophytosis

2.2. Pityriasis Versicolor

2.3. Candidiasis

2.4. Mold Infections

3. Diagnosis of Fungal Skin Infections

4. Treatment

5. The Need of Nanotechnology in Skin Infections

5.1. Application of Nanoparticles in Skin Infection

6. Antifungal Nanogel and Formulations

7. Nanotoxicity to Skin

8. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 12: Alternative Antimicrobials from Natural Products Against Dermatological Infections

1. Introduction

2. Common Dermatological Infections from Microorganisms

3. The Shortcomings of Conventional Antimicrobials

4. Natural Products as Alternatives to Conventional Antimicrobials

5. Ethnobotanical Studies

6. Plant-Derived Antimicrobials

7. In Vitro Studies of Plant Species and Their Metabolites Against DIs

8. Fruits and Vegetables as a Source of Antimicrobials

9. Essential Oils

10. Antimicrobials of Animal Origin

11. Antimicrobials of Marine Origin

12. Antibiotics of Bacterial Origin

13. Controlled Clinical Trials of Herbal Medicines Against Dermatological Infections

14. Discussion

15. Conclusion

References

Chapter 13: Medicinal Plants Versus Skin Disorders: A Survey From Ancient to Modern Herbalism

1. Introduction

2. Medicinal Plants Versus Skin Disorders

2.1. Acne

2.2. Atopic Dermatitis

2.3. Psoriasis

2.4. Skin Cancer

2.5. Skin Pigmentation Disorders

3. Microbial Infections of Skin

4. Conclusion and Perspectives

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 14: Natural Products as Source of New Antimicrobial Compounds for Skin Infections

1. Introduction

2. Clinical and Investigational Approach to Skin Bacterial Infections

3. Natural Remedies in Skin Infection Diseases

4. Alkaloids

5. Phenolic Compounds (Lignans, Xanthones)

6. Diterpenes

7. FAs and Lipids

8. Carbohydrates

9. Conclusion

References

Chapter 15: Role of Medicinal Plants and Bioactive Compounds Against Skin Disease-Causing Microbes, With Special Emphasis on...

1. Introduction

2. Types of Skin Infections

2.1. Bacterial Skin Infections

2.1.1. Impetigo

2.1.2. Scarlet Fever

2.1.3. Leprosy (Hansen's Disease)

2.1.4. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Skin Infections

2.1.5. Acne

2.2. Fungal Skin Infections

2.2.1. Candidiasis (Yeast Infection)

2.2.2. Ringworm (Tinea) and Athlete's Foot (Tinea Pedis)

2.2.3. Fungal Nail Infections (Tinea Unguium)

3. Causes of Antibiotic Resistance

4. Indigenous Knowledge

5. Scientific Knowledge Applied to Use of Medicinal Plants

6. Plants as a Rich Source of Bioactive Compounds (Secondary Metabolites)

7. Combined Preparations Used to Treat Skin Infections

8. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 16: Antimicrobial Strategies in Novel Drug Delivery Systems: Applications in the Treatment of Skin and Soft Tissue ...

1. Introduction

1.1. Acute Bacterial Skin and Skin Structure Infections

1.2. Skin Microbiome

1.3. Antimicrobial Drug Discovery and Bioavailability in Skin

2. Drug Delivery and the Skin

2.1. Chemical Enhancers

2.2. Physical Enhancers

2.2.1. Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy

2.2.2. Pulsed Electric Fields

2.2.3. Nonthermal Plasma

2.3. Nanotechnology

2.4. Dermatopharmacokinetics

3. Application Models

3.1. Antimicrobial Coating

3.2. Antimicrobial Peptides

3.3. Wound Dressing

3.4. Healing Efficacy in Skin Infections

3.5. Burn Wound Infections

3.6. Wound Healing Research Model

4. Skin Infections, Natural Products, and Nanotechnology

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 17: Medical, Surgical Therapy, and Alternative Treatment of Infected Vascular Grafts

1. Introduction

2. Epidemiology and Pathophysiology

3. Clinic

4. Classification

5. Instrumental Studies

6. Medical Therapy

7. Surgical and Alternative Treatment

8. Endovascular Treatment

9. Conclusions

References

Chapter 18: Dermoscopy Findings in Infectious and Parasitic Diseases

1. Introduction

2. Viral Infections

2.1. Molluscum contagiosum

2.2. Warts

3. Fungal Infections

3.1. Tinea Capitis

3.2. Tinea Nigra

4. Infestations by Parasites

4.1. Larva Migrans

4.2. Myiasis

4.3. Pediculosis

4.4. Scabies

4.5. Tungiasis

5. Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

Index

Back Cover