Chapter
2.2. Water Intake and Brine Discharge
3. Economic Sustainability of Desalination
3.1. The Financial Aspects of Desalination
3.2. Mega-Scale Desalination
3.3. Innovation as a Driver for Cost Reduction
4. Society and Desalination
4.1.1. The Wonthaggi Desalination Plant, Victoria, Australia
4.1.2. The Singapore NEWater Project
4.1.3. The Case of the City of San Diego, California
4.2. Main Issues Affecting People's Attitudes Toward Desalination
Chapter 2: Membrane-Based Desalination Technology for Energy Efficiency and Cost Reduction
1. Trends and Limitations of Leading Desalination Technologies
1.1. Trends of Thermal Desalination Processes
1.2. Trends of SWRO Desalination Processes
1.2.1. The Development of Technology and Devices for Conventional RO Process
1.2.2. Novel SWRO Configuration Design
2. Novel Membrane-Based Desalination Technologies for Reducing Desalination Cost
2.1. Membrane Distillation Technology
2.1.2. Membrane Classification
2.1.2.1. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation
2.1.2.2. Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation
2.1.2.3. Vacuum Membrane Distillation
2.1.2.4. Air-Gap Membrane Distillation
2.1.2.5. Permeate-Gap Membrane Distillation
2.1.2.6. Conductive Gap Membrane Distillation
2.1.3.1. Membrane Fabrication
2.1.4. Application and Commercialization of MD
2.2.2. Classification of Osmotic Processes
2.2.4. Application and Commercialization of FO
2.3. Pressure-Retarded Osmosis Technology
2.3.2. PRO Membrane and Performance
2.3.3. Application and Commercialization of PRO
2.4. Novel Membrane-Based Technologies
2.4.1. Nanocomposite Membranes
2.4.2. Aquaporin Membranes
2.4.3. Carbon Nanotube Membranes
2.4.4. Graphene-Based Membranes
2.4.5. Energy-Efficient RO Desalination Process
3. Hybrid Desalination Technology for Energy Efficiency and Cost Reduction
3.1. Limitation of FO Processes
3.2.1. FO-RO Hybrid Process
3.2.2. FO-MSF/MED Hybrid Process
3.2.3. FO-Electrodialysis Hybrid Process
3.3. Limitations of MD Technologies
3.4. MD-Based Hybrid Technologies
3.4.1. RO-MD Hybrid Process
3.4.4. Renewable Energy Driven MD
Chapter 3: Autonomous Solar-Powered Desalination Systems for Remote Communities
2. Water Needs for Remote Communities
2.1. Remote Community Water Supplies and the Need for Autonomous Systems
2.2. Water Quality and Quantity Requirements in Remote Communities
2.3. Availability and Quality of Renewable Energy Resources
2.4. Small-Scale and Autonomous Water Supply Systems
3.1. Assessment of Energy Efficiency
3.2. Energy Fluctuations and Storage
3.3. Direct Coupling: The Issue of Fluctuations
4. Renewable Energy-Powered Water Technologies/Systems
4.1. Overall Desalination Technologies
4.2. Solar-Powered Membrane Based Desalination Systems
4.3. Photovoltaic-Powered Reverse Osmosis (PV-RO)
4.4. Photovoltaic-Powered Electrodialysis (PV-ED)
4.5. Solar-Powered Membrane Distillation (Solar-MD)
5. Operation and Maintenance
5.1. Safe Operating Window
5.2. Fouling, Cleaning, and Maintenance
6. Socioeconomic Integration, Costs, Public Perception, and Market Potential
6.1. Socioeconomic Integration
6.2. Costs of Small-Scale RE-Membrane Systems
6.3. Public Perception/Acceptance
7.2. Concentrate Management
7.4. Public Health and Water Quality Concerns
7.5. Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA)
Chapter 4: Thermodynamics, Exergy, and Energy Efficiency in Desalination Systems
2. Thermodynamic Essentials
2.1. Thermodynamic Analysis of Open Systems
2.2. Thermodynamic Properties of Mixtures
2.2.1. Gibbs Energy as a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function
2.2.2. Standard Formulations for Gibbs Energy and the Chemical Potential
2.2.3. Ideal Solutions and Deviations From Ideality as Functions of Activity
2.3. Activity Coefficient Models for Electrolytes
2.4. Colligative Properties: Boiling Point Elevation, Freezing Point Depression, Vapor Pressure Lowering, and Osmotic Pre ...
2.4.1. Boiling Point Elevation
2.4.2. Freezing Point Depression
2.4.3. Vapor Pressure Lowering
3.1.1. Case 1: p = p0, w = w0 but T≠T0
3.1.2. Case 2: T = T0, w = w0 but p≠p0
3.1.3. Case 3: T = T0, p = p0 but w≠w0
4. Thermodynamic Analysis of Desalination Processes
4.1. Derivation of Performance Parameters for Desalination
4.1.1. Work and Heat of Separation
4.1.2. Least Work and Heat of Separation
4.1.3. Least Work of Separation for Salt Removal
4.1.4. Second Law Efficiency
4.1.5. Energetic Performance Parameters
4.2. Analysis of Entropy Generation Mechanisms in Desalination
4.2.2. Flow Through an Expansion Device Without Phase Change
4.2.3. Pumping and Compressing
4.2.4. Approximately Isobaric Heat Transfer Process
4.2.5. Thermal Disequilibrium of Discharge Streams
4.2.6. Chemical Disequilibrium of Concentrate Stream
5. Entropy Generation Mechanisms in Seawater Desalination Technologies
5.1. Multiple Effect Distillation
5.2. Direct Contact Membrane Distillation
5.3. Mechanical Vapor Compression
6. Second Law Efficiency for a Desalination System Operating as Part of a Cogeneration Plant
6.1. Desalination Powered by Work
6.2. Desalination Powered by Cogenerated Heat and Work
Appendix A. Seawater Properties Correlations
A.6. Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure
Appendix B. Pitzer Parameters
Chapter 5: Brine Management in Desalination Plants
1.1. Brine Disposal Methods
1.1.1. Seawater Brine Disposal Method
1.1.2. Inland Discharge Methods
1.2. Economics of Brine Disposal
1.3. Social Aspects of Brine Discharge
2. Modeling of Brine Discharge
3. Technologies Used in Brine Treatment
3.1. Thermal-Based Technologies
3.2. Membrane-Based Technologies
3.3.2.1. Brine Salt Applications
Chapter 6: Advanced Membrane-Based Desalination Systems for Water and Minerals Extracted From the Sea
3. Zero Liquid Discharge Strategy Through Integrated Membrane-Based Desalination Systems: Description of the Process
4. Economics and Energy Consumption of the Process
5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Chapter 7: Nanoparticle Incorporation into Desalination and Water Treatment Membranes-Potential Advantages and Cha
1. Membranes for Water Treatment: Background and Motivation for Nanoparticle Incorporation
2. Nanoparticles and Their Unique Properties
2.3. Summary of Key Nanoparticle Properties and Relevance to Membrane Technology
3. Nanoparticles for MDWT
3.8. Nanoclay and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
4. Conclusions and Future Prospects
Chapter 8: Prospects and State-of-the-Art of Carbon Nanotube Membranes in Desalination Processes
2. Types of CNTs Used in Membrane Fabrication
2.2. CNT Tip Functionalization and Alignment
3. Types of CNT Composite Membranes
4. Fabrication Processes for CNT Membranes for Desalination
5. Solute Transport Properties of CNT Membranes
6. Characterization Tools for CNT-Based Membranes
6.1. Introduction to Techniques used to Probe CNT Membranes
6.2. Microscopic Investigation of CNT membranes
6.3. Mechanical Strength Analysis
6.4. Contact Angle Analysis
6.6. Streaming Potential and Surface Charge Analysis
6.7. Other Characterization Techniques
7. Environmental Sustainability of CNT Membranes
7.3. Toxicity of CNT Membranes
7.4. Commercial Viability of CNT Membrane Desalination Processes
8. Challenges and Future Perspectives
Chapter 9: Satellites-Based Monitoring of Harmful Algal Blooms for Sustainable Desalination
2.2. HABs Characteristics
2.3. Impact of Algal Blooms on SWRO
3. HAB Monitoring and Mapping Using Remote Sensing
3.1. History of Ocean Color Satellites
3.2. Water Optical Properties
3.3. Spectrum of Algae-Laden Water
3.4. Retrieval of Chl-a With Ocean Color Models
3.5. Mapping of Chl-a Concentrations Using Ocean Color Models
3.6. Factors Affecting Ocean Color Reflectance
3.6.1. Atmospheric Aerosols
3.6.2. Shallow Water and Sea Bottom Effect
3.6.3. Low Resolution of the Satellites Images
3.7. Automated HABs Tracking
Chapter 10: Desalination as a Municipal Water Supply in the United States
1. Primer on US Municipal Desalination and the US Municipal Water Sector
1.1. Decentralized Provision of Municipal Water Services
1.2. US Municipal Desalination Forecast
2. Deciding on Municipal Desalination
2.1. Difference in Desalination Facilities Operating as a Base Load and Operating Intermittently
2.2. Difference in Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination Adoption Decisions
3. Public Financing Challenges and Private Opportunities
4. Energy Intensity and Alternative Energy Opportunities
5. Environmental and Health Protections for Municipal Desalination
5.1. Options for Inland and Coastal Concentrate Management
5.2. Mitigation of Environmental Impacts of Concentrate Management
5.3. Intake Alternatives for Seawater Desalination
5.4. Public Health Protections
6. Brackish Water Desalination in Florida, California, and Texas
6.1. Florida—Early and Consistent Adopter of Brackish Water Desalination
6.2. California—Brackish Water Desalination Is Popular in Southern California
6.3. Texas—Abundant Brackish Water Desalination Opportunities
7. Seawater Desalination in Florida, California, and Texas
7.1. Florida—Early Adopter Learned to Be Cautious
7.2. California—Ambitious Proposals Bolstered by Recent Drought
7.3. Texas—Measured Plan for Adoption Over Decades
Chapter 11: Commercialization of Desalination and Water Treatment Technology: Shining a Light on the Path From Research Pro ...
1. How Entrepreneurs Seek Valuable Ideas
1.1. Market Domain/Macro Level: Market Attractiveness
1.2.1. Political Factors to Consider
1.2.2. Economic Factors to Consider
1.2.3. Sociocultural Factors to Consider
1.2.4. Technological Factors to Consider
1.3. Market Domain/Micro Level: Sector Market Benefits and Attractiveness
1.4. Industry Domain/Macro Level: Industry Attractiveness
1.5. Industry Domain/Micro Level: Sustainable Advantage
1.6. Team Domain: Mission, Aspirations, Propensity for Risk
1.7. Team Domain: Ability to Execute on Critical Success Factors
1.8. Team Domain: Connectedness Up, Down, Across Value Chain
2. Considerations for Researchers Embarking on New Projects Aimed at Generating Saleable Intellectual Property
3. Potential Desalination Value Creation for Researchers—An Example From the Oil and Gas Industry
3.3. OriginClear Technologies
Desalination Sustainability
：A Technical, Socioeconomic, and Environmental Approach
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