Front Cover

Permo-Triassic Salt Provinces of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Margins: Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Potential

Copyright

Epigraph

Dedication

Albert Walter Bally

In Memoriam

Martin P.A. Jackson (1947–2016)

Ulf Bayer (1949–2016)

Contents

Contributors

Foreword

References

Acknowledgments

Part I: Salt tectonics in time and space

Chapter 1: Permo-Triassic Basins and Tectonics in Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Margins: A Synthesis

1 Introduction

2 Contents and Organization of the Book

3 The Permo-Triassic Chronostratigraphic Scale

4 Permian and Triassic Salt Basins

5 The Permian Zechstein Basin in Europe

5.1 South Kara Sea (5; Fig. 14)

5.2 Timan Pechora Basin (6; Fig. 14)

5.3 Svalbard (7; Fig. 14)

5.4 Barents Sea (8; Fig. 14)

5.5 Bjørnøya Basin (9; Fig. 14) and Nordkapp Basin (10; Fig. 14)

5.6 Tampen Spur (23; Fig. 15)

5.7 Viking Graben (24; Fig. 15)

5.8 Horda Platform (25; Fig. 15) and Norwegian Danish Basin (26; Fig. 15)

5.9 Central North Sea (27; Fig. 16)

5.10 Southern North Sea Offshore of the United Kingdom (28; Fig. 16)

5.11 Southern North Sea, the Netherlands (29; Fig. 16)

5.12 North German Basin (30; Fig. 16)

5.13 Mid-Polish Trough (31; Fig. 16)

6 Triassic Evaporites in the Atlantic Margins

6.1 West Greenland (1; Fig. 17) and Wandel Sea Basin (2; Fig. 17)

6.2 East Greenland (3; Fig. 17)

6.3 Scotian Margin (4; Fig. 17)

6.4 West of Shetland (11; Fig. 18) and Moray Firth (12; Fig. 18)

6.5 Hebrides (13; Fig. 18)

6.6 Irish Sea (14; Fig. 18)

6.7 Celtic Sea (15; Fig. 18)

6.8 Wessex Basin (16; Fig. 18)

6.9 Parentis Basin and Offshore Northern Spain, in the Asturias Margin (17; Fig. 18)

6.10 Peniche and Lusitanian Basins (18; Fig. 18)

6.11 Algarve Basin (19; Fig. 18)

6.12 Offshore Morocco (20; Fig. 18)

6.13 Offshore Southern Mauritania (21; Fig. 18)

6.14 Offshore Senegal and Guinea-Bissau (22; Fig. 18)

7 Folded Belts With Triassic Evaporites in Europe and North Africa

7.1 Paris Basin (35; Fig. 19)

7.2 Iberian Range (36; Fig. 19)

7.3 Catalan Coastal Ranges (37; Fig. 19)

7.4 Pyrenees to the Aquitanian Basin (38; Fig. 19)

7.5 External Betics in Southern Spain (39; Fig. 19)

7.6 Jura Mountains (40; Fig. 19)

7.7 Calcareous Northern Alps (41; Fig. 19)

7.8 Apulian and Ionian Zones (42 and 43, respectively; Fig. 19)

7.9 Balkans and Fore-Balkans (44; Fig. 19)

7.10 High to Middle Atlas in Morocco (32; Fig. 20)

7.11 Tunisian Atlas (33; Fig. 20)

7.12 Berkine-Ghadames Basin (34; Fig. 20)

Appendix

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2: The Permian and Triassic Chronostratigraphic Scales—Framework for Ordering Events

1 Introduction

2 Building a Chronostratigraphy

3 Permian Chronostratigraphic Scale

3.1 Some History

3.2 Subdivisions of the Permian

3.3 Regional Permian Chronostratigraphic Scales

4 Triassic Chronostratigraphic Scale

4.1 Some History

4.2 Subdivisions of the Triassic

4.3 Other Triassic Chronostratigraphic Scales

5 Integrated Timescales

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 3: Late Permian-Early Jurassic Paleogeography of Western Tethys and the World

1 Introduction

2 A Revised Plate Kinematic Model

3 Latest Permian, Triassic, and Early Jurassic Global Plate Tectonics and Paleogeography

3.1 Plate Tectonics

3.2 Paleogeography

4 The Paleogeographic Method

5 Paleogeography of the Western Tethys

6 Late Permian Paleogeography (Lopingian, 259.8–252.17 Ma), Fig. 13

7 Middle-Early Late Triassic Paleogeography (Ladinian and Carnian, 242–227 Ma), Fig. 14

8 Earliest Jurassic Paleogeography (Hettangian and Sinemurian, 201.3–190.8 Ma), Fig. 15

9 Conclusions and Summary

Appendix 1 Annotated Bibliography

References Cited in Table 3

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4: An Overview of Allochthonous Salt Tectonics

1 Introduction

2 Fundamentals of Allochthonous Salt

2.1 Why Does Allochthonous Salt Form?

2.2 How Is Lateral Emplacement Initiated?

2.3 How Does Allochthonous Salt Advance?

2.4 What Are the Different Styles of Allochthonous Salt?

2.4.1 Salt Pancakes and Salt-Stock Canopies

2.4.2 Salt Tongues and Salt-Tongue Canopies

2.4.3 Source-Fed Thrusts and Salt Nappes

2.4.4 Salt Wings

2.5 How Do Sheets and Canopies Evolve?

2.5.1 Suprasalt Deformation

Salt Pancakes and Salt-Stock Canopies

Salt Tongues and Salt-Tongue Canopies

Salt Nappes

2.5.2 Subsalt Deformation

2.6 How Are Different Styles of Allochthonous Salt Distributed?

3 Allochthonous Salt in the Permo-Triassic Basins

3.1 Intracontinental Basins

3.2 Passive Margins

3.3 Convergent-Margin Fold-and-Thrust Belts

4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5: The Internal Structure of the Zechstein Salt and Related Drilling Risks in the Northern Netherlands

1 Introduction

2 Geological Setting

3 The Internal Structure of the Zechstein

3.1 The Z2 and Z3 Anhydrite-Carbonate Members

3.2 K-Mg Salts (“Squeezing Salts”)

4 Zechstein Drilling Issues

4.1 Z1–Z3 Carbonate Kicks and Losses

4.2 Intrasalt Brine Pockets

4.3 Squeezing Salts, Salt Creeps, and Washouts

5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6: Petroleum Systems and Play Types Associated With Permo-Triassic Salt in Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Region

1 Introduction

2 Postsalt Plays and Petroleum Systems

2.1 Offshore Mauritania

2.2 Offshore Morocco, Safi (or Doukkala) Basin Segment

2.3 Offshore Morocco, Deepwater Essaouira Basin Segment

2.4 Offshore Morocco, Essaouira Basin Shelf Segment

2.5 Offshore Canada, Nova Scotia Margin

2.6 Postsalt Play Types, North Sea Region

2.7 Suprasalt Chalk, Sidi El Kilani Field, Onshore Central Tunisia

2.8 Suprasalt Anticline, Lacq Gas Field, Aquitaine Basin, France

2.9 Suprasalt Anticline, Ayoluengo Field, Burgos Basin, Spain

2.10 Salt Detachment Thrust-Fold Belt, Onshore Albania

2.11 Subsalt Rift Shoulder Play, Central High Atlas, Morocco

2.12 Subsalt Rift Shoulder Play, Balkans and Forebalkans, Bulgaria

3 Presalt Plays

3.1 Meskala Presalt Gas/Condensate Field, Onshore Essaouira Basin, Morocco

3.2 Presalt Play, Onshore Pre-Rif/Saïss Basin, Morocco

3.3 Presalt Play, Lusitanian Basin, Portugal

3.4 Presalt TAG-I and TAG-S Play, Ghadames Basin, Algeria and Tunisia

3.5 Presalt Play, Southern Atlas Thrust-Folded Belt, Tunisia

3.6 Presalt (or IntraSalt) Play, Zechstein BMB Field, Poland

3.7 Presalt Rotliegend Play, Groningen Field, the Netherlands

4 Some Highlights of the Impact of Permo-Triassic Evaporites on Petroleum Systems

4.1 Trap

4.2 Seal

4.3 Reservoir

4.4 Source

5 Exploration Outlook

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Part II: Zechstein Basin

Chapter 7: Paleogeographic Evolution of Latest Permian and Triassic Salt Basins in Northwest Europe

1 Introduction

2 Basin Setting

2.1 Tectonic Setting

2.2 Climate

2.3 Sediment Supply

2.4 Eustacy

3 Facies

4 Paleogeography

5 Discussion

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 8: Composition, Tectonics, and Hydrocarbon Significance of Zechstein Supergroup Salt on the United Kingdom and Nor ...

1 Introduction

2 Age and Distribution of the ZSG

3 Stratigraphic and Mechano-Stratigraphic Framework of the ZSG

4 Salt-Tectonic Structural Styles in the North Sea; Triggers and Drivers

4.1 Extension

4.2 Sedimentary Differential Loading

4.3 Contraction

5 Salt-Related Faulting

6 Impact of ZSG on Petroleum Systems Development

6.1 Source

6.2 Reservoir

6.3 Seal

6.4 Trap

7 Summary

References

Chapter 9: Structure and Evolution of the Glueckstadt Graben in Relation to the Other PostPermian Subbasins of the Central ...

1 Introduction

2 Regional Overview

3 Salt-Dominated Sequences of the Glueckstadt Graben

4 Salt Movements vs. Sedimentation Within the Glueckstadt Graben

5 Salt-Related Features of the Sedimentary Cover Within the Glueckstadt Graben

6 The Glueckstadt Graben at the Scale of the Central European Basin System

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10: The Tectonic History of the Zechstein Basin in the Netherlands and Germany

1 Introduction

2 Zechstein Deposition and the General Tectonic Setting

3 Zechstein Stratigraphy

4 The Structure of the Zechstein

4.1 Netherlands

4.2 Germany

5 Salt Tectonics

5.1 Netherlands

5.2 Germany

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 11: Permo-Triassic Evaporites of the Polish Basin and Their Bearing on the Tectonic Evolution and Hydrocarbon Syst ...

1 The Permo-Mesozoic Polish Basin—An Overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Upper Rotliegend

1.3 Zechstein

1.4 Upper Triassic

2 Mesozoic Salt Tectonics

3 Petroleum System

3.1 Carboniferous-Rotliegend Petroleum System

3.2 Main Dolomite Petroleum System

Acknowledgments

References

Part III: Atlantic Margins

Chapter 12: Salt Tectonics of the Norwegian Barents Sea and Northeast Greenland Shelf

1 Introduction

2 Geological Setting

2.1 Regional Tectonics

2.2 Stratigraphy

2.2.1 Presalt Strata

2.2.2 Gipsdalen Group Evaporites

2.2.3 Postsalt Strata

2.3 Salt Tectonics

3 Structural Analysis

3.1 SE Norwegian Barents Sea

3.1.1 Rifting and Evaporite Deposition

3.1.2 Layered Evaporite Sequence

3.1.3 Styles and Development of Salt Structures

Veslekari Dome

Tiddlybanken Diapir

Nordkapp Basin

3.2 SW Norwegian Barents Sea

3.3 NE Greenland Shelf

3.3.1 Rifting and Evaporite Distribution

3.3.2 Layered Evaporite Sequence

3.3.3 Styles and Development of Salt Structures

4 Discussion and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13: A Review of Mesozoic-Cenozoic Salt Tectonics Along the Scotian Margin, Eastern Canada

1 Introduction and Geological Setting

2 Data Set and Approach

3 Basement Architecture

4 The Primary Synrift Salt Basin Off Nova Scotia

4.1 Landward Boundary

4.2 Seaward Boundary

5 Distribution and Style of Expelled Salt

5.1 West Shelburne Subbasin

5.2 Shelburne Subbasin

5.3 Abenaki and Sable Subbasins

5.4 Huron Subbasin

5.5 Laurentian Subbasin

6 Discussion and Conclusions

6.1 Linking Regional Sedimentation Patterns and Salt Tectonics

6.1.1 Northeastern Margin

6.1.2 Southwestern Margin

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14: Influence of Salt Diapirism on the Basin Architecture and Hydrocarbon Prospects of the Western Iberian Margin

1 Introduction

2 Geological Framework

2.1 Lusitanian Basin

2.2 Peniche Basin

2.3 Petroleum Systems

3 Salt Units

3.1 Layered Salt Stratigraphy

3.2 Dagorda Formation

3.3 Interpretation

4 Salt Tectonics

4.1 Lusitanian Basin

4.2 Peniche Basin

5 Impact on Hydrocarbon Prospectivity

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15: Salt Tectonics Along the Atlantic Margin of NW Africa (Morocco and Mauritania)

1 Introduction

2 Atlantic Morocco: Geological Setting, Stratigraphy and Structure

3 Structural Domains With Salt Tectonics in the Central Segment of the Moroccan Atlantic Margin

4 Regional Map-View Summary of Salt Tectonics Morocco

5 Offshore Mauritania: Geological Setting, Stratigraphy and Structure

6 Seismic Examples of Salt Tectonics From the Central Segment of the Mauritanian Salt Basin

7 Comparison of the Salt Tectonics in Morocco Versus Mauritania

8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16: Salt Tectonics Within the Offshore Asturian Basin: North Iberian Margin

1 Introduction

2 Geological and Structural Setting

2.1 Tectonic Evolution of the North Iberian Margin

2.2 Regional Salt Tectonics

2.3 Sedimentary Infill

2.3.1 Triassic Sequence in the Asturian Basin

3 Dataset

3.1 Seismic Data

3.2 Well Log-Based Stratigraphy

3.3 Structure of the Offshore Asturian Basin

3.4 Salt-Related Structures

3.4.1 Western Salt Domain

3.4.2 Eastern Salt Domain

4 Discussion

5 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Part IV: Alpine Folded Belts

Chapter 17: Salt and Strike-Slip Tectonics as Main Drivers in the Structural Evolution of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin, Spain

1 Introduction

2 Geological Setting

3 Stratigraphy of the BCB

4 Structure of the BCB

4.1 Cross Section 1: Amaya-Ayoluengo-Leva Anticline-Matienzo-Ajo

4.2 Cross Section 2: Ubierna-Poza de la Sal-Villarcayo-Castro Urdiales

4.3 Cross Section 3: Treviño-Bilbao Anticline-Guernika

4.4 Cross Section 4: Urbasa-Aitzgorri-Azpeitia

5 Salt Tectonics

5.1 Ajo Area

5.2 Zamanzas-Oña Band

5.3 Urbasa Deep Structure

5.4 Basque Arc

6 BCB Salt Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Exploration

7 Tectonic Evolution of the BCB

7.1 Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Rift Extension

7.2 Tectonic Inversion and Tertiary Compression

7.3 Evolutionary Models of the BCB

8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 18: The Southern Pyrenees: A Salt-Based Fold-and-Thrust Belt

1 Introduction

2 Geological Setting

2.1 General Structure

2.2 Stratigraphy

3 The Triassic of the Pyrenees

4 Halokinesis and Tectonic Evolution

5 Salt Structures

5.1 Nogueras Zone

5.2 Sierras Marginales

5.3 Seismic Data and Geological Cross Sections

6 Discussion

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19: Allochthonous Triassic and Salt Tectonic Processes in the Betic-Rif Orogenic Arc

1 Introduction

2 Tectonic Setting

3 The Triassic Sequence in the Betics and Rif

4 Salt Tectonics in the Rif

4.1 Prerifaine Nappe

4.2 Prerifaine Ridges

5 Salt Tectonics in the Western and Central Betics

5.1 Regional Cross-Section

5.2 The Frontal Structure in Central Betic Cordillera

5.3 Salt Tectonics at the Boundary Between the Alboran Domain and the External Betics

5.4 Salt-Related Structural Domains

5.4.1 Subsalt Tectonic Windows

5.4.2 Suprasalt Carapaces

5.4.3 Suprasalt Minibasins

Minibasins in the El Saucejo Region

Minibasins in the Malpasillo-Badolatosa Region

Benamejí Minibasin

5.5 Salt Tectonics in the Gulf of Cadiz

6 Alpine Evolution of the Allochthonous Salt in the Betics

7 Summary and Conclusions

Appendix

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 20: The Role of the Triassic Evaporites Underneath the North Alpine Foreland

1 Introduction

2 Geological Setting

3 Basin Evolution and Triassic Lithostratigraphy

3.1 From Paleozoic to Cenozoic

3.2 Triassic Lithostratigraphy

4 Distribution and Thickness of the Germanic Triassic Units

5 The Role of Evaporites as Décollement Levels

5.1 Levels of Décollement

5.2 Structural Style Associated With the Décollement Zone

5.3 Deformation Inside the Décollement Levels

5.4 Stress in the Alpine Foreland

6 Conclusions

Appendix

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 21: The Eastern Alps: Multistage Development of Extremely Deformed Evaporites

1 Introduction

2 Tectonic and Basin Evolution of the NCA

3 Late Permian Haselgebirge Formation

3.1 Haselgebirge Lithologies

3.2 Haselgebirge Deformation

3.3 Thermal History

3.4 Economy of Haselgebirge Deposits

4 Upper Triassic Evaporites

5 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 22: Salt Tectonics in the Carnian Evaporite Basin of the Eastern Balkan-Forebalkan Region of Bulgaria

1 Introduction

2 Regional Setting and Stratigraphy of the Evaporites in the Eastern Forebalkans

3 Data Base

4 Styles of Salt Tectonics

5 Basin Evolution in the Context of Salt Tectonics

6 Structural Analogy With Other Thin-Skinned Folded Belts With Keuper Décollements

7 Implication for Hydrocarbon Exploration: Promising Hydrocarbon Systems and Plays

8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 23: The Triassic Evaporites in the Evolution of the Adriatic Basin

1 Introduction

2 Regional Framework

3 Permian-Triassic Stratigraphy and Facies Distribution

3.1 Lower-Middle Triassic Clastic Sediments

3.2 Upper Triassic Evaporites and Dolomites

4 The Jurassic Rifting and Mesozoic Passive Margin

5 Cenozoic Basin Inversion and Salt Tectonics

6 Discussion

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 24: The Ionian Fold-and-Thrust Belt in Central and Southern Albania: A Petroleum Province With Triassic Evaporites

1 Introduction

2 Regional Tectonic Setting

3 Stratigraphy of the Ionian and Sazani Zones

4 Petroleum System

5 Triassic Salt Structures

5.1 The Dumre Salt Plug

5.2 The Delvina Salt Pillow

5.3 The Butrinti-Xarra Salt Wall

6 Discussion and Conclusions

6.1 Precursor Salt Structures and Their Role During the Alpine Shortening

6.2 Hydrocarbon Systems Related to the Triassic Evaporites

Acknowledgments

References

Part V: North Africa

Chapter 25: Styles of Salt Tectonics in Central Tunisia: An Overview

1 Introduction

2 Regional Geological Framework and Tectonostratigraphy

3 The Age and Lithofacies of the Triassic Evaporites

4 Regional Overview of Triassic Salt Structures in Northern and Central Tunisia

5 Geological Setting and Hydrocarbon Plays of the Kairouan Area of Central Tunisia

6 Data Sets and Methodology

7 Salt Tectonics Features Based on 2D Seismic

8 Impact of Salt Tectonics for Exploration

9 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 26: Salt Tectonics in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco

1 Introduction

2 Atlas Rift Basin Within the Context of the Atlantic-Tethys Geodynamics

3 The Atlas Salt Province

4 Jurassic Salt Tectonics in the Central High Atlas

4.1 Tazoult Ridge (Salt Wall)

4.2 Jbel Azourki Ridge (Salt Wall)

4.3 Imilchil Diapiric Province

5 Discussion: Extension, Compression, and Salt Tectonics in the Atlas

6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 27: Development of an Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic Evaporite Basin on the Saharan Platform, North Africa

1 Introduction

2 Database and Methods

3 Stratigraphy of the Evaporitic Sequence

3.1 Lithostratigraphy

3.2 Seismic Stratigraphy

4 Evaporite Stratigraphy and Cyclostratigraphy

4.1 Sequence 1

4.2 Sequence 2: The "B Marker"

4.3 Sequence 3

5 Basin Architecture: Correlation of Evaporite Cycles

6 Basin Development

6.1 Phase 1 (Late Norian-Late Sinemurian)

6.2 Phase 2 (Pliensbachian)

6.3 Phase 3 (Late Pliensbachian-Late Bajocian)

7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Index

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