Chapter
2.6 Inductance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing and Transposition
2.7 Capacitance of Transmission Lines
2.7.1 Potential Difference Between Two Points Due to an Electric Charge
2.7.2 Capacitance of a Two-Conductor Line
2.7.3 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line With Symmetric Spacing
2.7.4 Capacitance of a Three-Phase Line With Unsymmetrical Spacing
2.8 Capacitance of a Three-Phase, Double-Circuit Line With Symmetrical Spacing
2.9 Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Transmission Lines
2.10 Effect of Earth Capacitance of a Single-Phase Line
2.11 Capacitance of Three-Phase Line Including Effect of Earth
2.12 Skin Effect and Proximity Effect
3.1 Sag and Tension Calculations
3.2 Approximate Relations for Sag and Tension
3.3 Conductors Supported at Different Levels
3.4 Effect of Wind on Sag
3.5 Effect of Ice Coating on Sag
3.6.1 Stranded Conductors
3.7 Vibrations of Conductors
4.3 Suspension Type or Disc Insulators
4.5 Voltage Distribution in String Insulators
4.7 Methods for Improving String Efficiency
4.7.3 Static Shielding or Grading Ring
4.8 Testing of Insulators
5 Corona and Interference
5.1 Disruptive Critical Voltage
5.2 Visual Critical Voltage (Vv)
5.4 Power Loss Due to Corona
5.5 Factors Influencing Corona Loss
5.6.1 Electromagnetic Effect
5.6.2 Electrostatic Effect
6 Performance of Transmission Lines
6.1 Classification of Lines
6.2 The Short Transmission Line
6.2.1 Voltage Regulation of a Transmission Line
6.2.2 Efficiency of a Transmission Line
6.4 Maximum Power Transfer
6.5 Medium Transmission Lines
6.5.1 Localized Capacitance at the Load End
6.6 The Long Transmission Line
6.7 Generalized Circuit Constants
6.8 Equivalent T- and π-Circuits
6.9 Evaluation of A B C D Parameters
6.10 Surge Impedance Loading
6.12 Power Relations in Transmission Lines
6.13 Power Circle Diagrams
6.13.1 Receiving End Power Circle Diagram
6.13.2 Sending End Power Circle Diagram
7.3 Electrostatic Stress in Single-Core Cable
7.4.1 Intersheath Grading
7.4.2 Capacitance Grading
7.5 Capacitance of the Cable
7.6 Capacitance of Three-Core Cables
7.7 Insulation Resistance of Cables
7.9 Thermal Phenomenon in Cables
7.12 Current Rating of the Cable
8 High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission
8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission
8.2 High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission System
8.2.1 Line-Commutated Converters
8.2.2 Voltage Source Converter
8.2.3 Converter Transformers
9 Substations and Neutral Grounding
9.1 Service Requirements–Based Classification
9.2 Construction Feature-Wise Classification
9.4 Factors Governing Layout of Substations
9.7 Earthing in Substations
9.8 Elements to be Earthed in a Substation
9.9 Power System Earthing
9.10 Earthing Transformers
9.11 Bus Bar Arrangements
9.15 Resistance Grounding
9.18 Gas-Insulated Substations
10.1 Effects of Voltage on the Conductor Volume
10.1.1 Radial and Ring Mains
10.2 Direct Current Distribution System
10.3 Distributor Fed From One End
10.4 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at the Same Voltage
10.5 Distributor Fed From Both Ends at Different Voltages
10.6 Uniformly Loaded Distributor Fed From One End
10.7.1 Same Maximum Voltage Between Conductor and Earth
10.7.2 Same Maximum Voltage Between Two Conductors
10.8 Alternating Current Distribution
10.8.1 Alternating Current Distributor Fed From One End
10.8.1.1 Concentrated Loads
10.9 Design of Feeder—Kelvin’s Law
11.2 Lightning Phenomenon
11.4 Attenuation of Traveling Waves
11.5 Surge Impedance and Velocity of Propagation
11.6 Reflection and Refraction Coefficients
11.7 Line Terminated Through Resistance
11.8 Line Terminated by Inductance
11.9 Line Terminated by Capacitance
11.10 Effect of Shunt Capacitance on Traveling Waves
11.11 Short-Circuited Line
11.12 Line Open Circuited at the Other End
11.13 Line Connected to a Cable
11.14 Line Terminated With Natural Impedance
11.15 Reflection and Refraction at a T-junction
11.16 Bewley Lattice Diagram
12 Protection Against Overvoltages
12.2.2 Expulsion Type Arresters
12.2.3 Valve Type Lightning Arresters
12.5 Classification of Lightning Arresters
12.6 Rating of Lightning Arresters
12.7 Tow Footing Resistance
12.8 Insulation Coordination
12.8.1 The Standard Impulse Wave
12.8.3 Basic Impulse Levels
13 Graph Theory and Network Matrices
13.8 Element-Node Incidence Matrix
13.9 Bus Incidence Matrix
13.10 Network Performance Equations
13.11 Bus Admittance Matrix and Bus Impedance Matrix
13.12 Bus Admittance Matrix by Direct Inspection
14 Short-Circuit Analysis
14.2 Advantages of Per-Unit System
14.3 Three-Phase Short Circuits
14.7 Importance of Short-Circuit Currents
14.8 Analysis of R–L Circuit
14.9 Three-Phase Short Circuit on an Unloaded Synchronous Generator
14.10 Effect of Load Current or Prefault Current
14.12 Construction of Reactors
14.13 Classification of Reactors
15 Unbalanced Fault Analysis
15.2 Symmetrical Components of Unsymmetrical Phases
15.3 Power in Sequence Components
15.4 Unitary Transformation for Power Invariance
15.6 Balanced Star-Connected Load
15.8 Sequence Impedances of Transformer
15.9 Sequence Reactances of Synchronous Machine
15.10 Sequence Networks of Synchronous Machines
15.10.1 Positive-Sequence Network
15.10.2 Negative-Sequence Network
15.10.3 Zero-Sequence Network
15.11 Unsymmetrical Faults
15.12 Assumptions for System Representation
15.13 Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator
15.15 Double Line-to-Ground Fault
15.16 Single-Line to Ground Fault With Fault Impedance
15.17 Line-to-Line Fault With Fault Impedence
15.18 Double Line-to-Ground Fault With Fault Impedence
16.1 Principle of Arc Extinction
16.2 Techniques for Arc Extinction
16.3 Formation and Maintenance of Arc
16.4 Arc Interruption by High Resistance
16.5 Transient Restriking and Recovery Voltages
16.7 Classification of Circuit Breakers
16.7.1 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers
16.7.2 Oil Circuit Breaker
16.7.3 Air Circuit Breaker
16.7.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
16.7.5 Sulfur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker
16.8 The Plain-Break Oil Circuit Breaker
16.9 Self-Generated Oil Circuit Breaker
16.10 Plain Explosion Pot
16.11 Cross-Jet Explosion Pot
16.12 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
16.13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oil Circuit Breakers
16.14 Air Break Circuit Breaker
16.15 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
16.16 Types of Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
16.16.1 Axial Blast Circuit Breakers
16.16.2 Cross-Blast Circuit Breakers
16.18 Resistance Switching
16.19 Interruption of Capacitive Currents
16.20 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
16.21 SF6 Circuit Breakers
16.21.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
16.21.2 Principle of Operation
16.22 High-Voltage Direct Current Interruption
16.23 Rating of Circuit Breakers
16.23.1 Symmetric Breaking Capacity
16.23.2 Asymmetric Breaking Capacity
16.23.4 Short Time Capacity
16.24 Testing of Circuit Breakers
17 Relaying and Protection
17.1 Requirements of Relaying
17.3 Primary and Backup Protection
17.4 Important Definitions and Terminology
17.5 Classification of Relays
17.6 Basic Principle of Relay Mechanism
17.7 Electromagnetic Relays
17.8.1 Torque Production in Induction Disc Type Relay
17.8.2 Induction Relay Construction
17.9.1 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay
17.10 Nondirectional Overcurrent Relay
17.12 Directional Overcurrent Relay
17.13.1 Time-Graded System
17.13.2 Current-Graded System
17.13.3 Combined Time–Current Grading
17.14 Earth Fault Protection Using Overcurrent Relays
17.15 Combined Earth Fault and Phase Fault Protection
17.16 Phase Fault Protection
17.17 Protection of Parallel Feeders
17.18 Protection of Ring Mains
17.19 Universal Torque Equation
17.19.1 Overcurrent Relays
17.19.2 Directional Relays
17.20 Distance Protection
17.20.1 Impedance Relay With Directional Unit
17.21 Three-Zone Protection With Impedance Relays
17.22 Impedance Time Relay
17.24 Three-Zone Protection With Reactance Relay
17.26 Overreach and Underreach in Distance Relays
17.27 Effect of Arc Resistance on Distance Relay Performance
17.28.2 Amplitude Comparators
17.28.4 Rectifier Bridge Type Amplitude Comparators
17.28.5 Phase Splitting in Amplitude Comparators
17.28.6 Coincidence Type Phase Comparators
17.29 Static Overcurrent Relay
17.30 Definite-Time Overcurrent Relay
17.31 Static Directional Overcurrent Relay
17.32 Static Impedance Relay
17.33 Static Reactance Relay
17.34 Advantages of Static Relays Over Electromagnetic Relays
17.35 Disadvantages of Static Relays
17.36 Differential Protection
17.37 Voltage Differential Protection
17.38 Percentage Differential Protection
17.39 Pilot Wire Protection
17.40 Translay Scheme of Protection
17.41 Carrier Current Protection
17.42 Transformer Protection
17.43 Differential Protection
17.44 Percentage Differential Protection
17.45 Magnetizing Inrush Currents in Transformers and Harmonic Restraint
17.47 Alternator Protection
17.48 Restricted Earth Fault Protection
17.49 Rotor Earth Fault Protection
17.50 Negative-Sequence Protection
18 Power System Stability
18.2 Illustration of Steady-State Stability Concept
18.3 Methods for Improcessing Steady-State Stability Limit
18.4 Synchronizing Power Coefficient
18.6 Stability of a Single Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus
18.8 Equal Area Criterion and Swing Equation
18.9 Transient Stability Limit
18.10 Frequency of Oscillations
18.11 Critical Clearing Time and Critical Clearing Angle
18.12 Fault on a Double-Circuit Line
18.13 Transient Stability When Power Is
18.13.1 Transmitted During the Fault
18.14 Fault Clearance and Reclosure in Double-Circuit System
18.15 Solution to Swing Equation Step-by-Step Method
18.16 Factors Affecting Transient Stability
18.17.1 Power System Stabilizer
18.18 Node Elimination Methods
18.19.1 Voltage stability limit
18.20 Methods for Prevention of Voltage Collapse
19.2 Modeling for Load Flow Studies
19.2.1 System Model for Load Flow Studies
19.3 Gauss–Seidel Iterative Method
19.4 Newton–Raphson Method
19.4.1 Rectangular Coordinates Method
19.4.1.1 Treatment of generator buses
19.4.2 The Polar Coordinates Method
19.4.2.1 Treatment of generator nodes
19.5 Sparsity of Network Admittance Matrices
19.6 Triangular Decomposition
19.9 Fast Decoupled Methods
19.10 Load Flow Solution Using Z Bus
19.10.1 Bus Impedance Formation
19.10.2 Addition of a Line to the Reference Bus
19.10.3 Addition of a Radial Line and New Bus
19.10.4 Addition of a Loop Closing Two Existing Buses in the System
19.10.5 Gauss–Seidel Method Using Z-Bus for Load Flow Solution
19.11 Comparison of Various Methods for Power Flow Solution
20 Economic Operation of Power Systems
20.1 Characteristics of Steam Plants
20.3 The Incremental Heat Rate Characteristics
20.4 The Incremental Fuel Cost Characteristic
20.5 Heat Rate Characteristic
20.6 Incremental Production Cost Characteristics
20.7 Characteristics of Hydroplants
20.8 Incremental Water Rate Characteristics
20.9 Incremental Production Cost Characteristic
20.10 Generating Costs at Thermal Plants
20.11 Analytical Form for Input–Output Characteristics of Thermal Units
20.12 Constraints in Operation
20.13 Plant Scheduling Methods
20.15 Equal Incremental Cost Method: Transmission Losses Neglected
20.16 Transmission Loss Formula—B-Coefficients
20.17 Active Power Scheduling
20.19 Evaluation of λ for Computation
20.20 Hydroelectric Plant Models
20.21 Pumped Storage Plant
20.22 Hydrothermal Scheduling
20.23 Energy Scheduling Method
20.24 Short-Term Hydrothermal Scheduling
20.24.1 Method of Lagrange Multipliers (Losses Neglected)
20.24.2 Lagrange Multipliers Method—Transmission Losses Considered
20.24.3 Short-Term Hydrothermal Scheduling Using B-Coefficients for Transmission Losses
21 Load Frequency Control
21.1 Speed Governing Mechanism
21.3 Steady-State Speed Regulation
21.4 Adjustment of Governor Characteristics
21.5 Transfer Function of Speed Control Mechanism
21.6 Transfer Function of a Power System
21.7 Transfer Function of Speed Governor
21.8 Model for a Steam Vessel
21.10 Single Control Area
21.11 The Basics of Load Frequency Control
21.12 Flat Frequency Control
21.13 Real Power Balance for Load Changes
21.14 Transfer Function of a Single Area System
21.15 Analysis of Single Area System
21.15.1 Reference Power Setting
21.16 Dynamic Response of Load Frequency Control Loop: Uncontrolled Case
21.18 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controllers
21.19 Interconnected Operation
21.20 Two-Area System—Tie-Line Power Model
21.21 Block Diagram for a Two-Area System
21.22 Analysis of Two-Area System
21.24 Tie-Line Bias Control—Implementation
21.25 The Effect of Bias Factor on System Regulation
21.26 Scope for Supplementary Control
22.1 The Two-Axis Model of Synchronous Machine
22.2 Derivation of Park’s Two-Axis Model
22.3 Synchronous Machine Analysis
22.3.1 Voltage Relations—Stator or Armature
22.3.2 Flux Linkage Relations
22.3.3 Inductance Relations
22.3.4 Flux Linkage Equations
22.5 Stator Voltage Equations
22.6 Steady-State Equation
22.7 Steady-State Vector Diagram
22.9 Equivalent Circuits and Phasor Diagrams
22.10 Transient State Phasor Diagram
22.12 Synchronous Machine Connected Through an External Reactance
23 Voltage and Reactive Power Control
23.1 Impedance and Reactive Power
23.2 System Voltage and Reactive Power
23.3 Reactive Power Generation by Synchronous Machines
23.4 Effect of Excitation Control
23.5 Voltage Regulation and Power Transfer
23.6 Exciter and Voltage Regulator
23.7 Block Schematic of Excitation Control
23.8 Static Excitation System
23.9 Brushless Excitation System
23.10 Automatic Voltage Regulators for Alternators
23.11 Analysis of Generator Voltage Control
23.12 Steady-State Performance Evaluation
23.13 Dynamic Response of Voltage Regulation Control
23.14 Stability Compensation for Voltage Control
23.15 Stabilizing Transformer
23.16.1 Computer Representation of Excitation System
23.17 IEEE Type 1 Excitation System
23.18 Power System Stabilizer
23.19 Reactive Power Generation by Turbo Generator
23.20 Synchronous Compensators
23.23 Tap-Changing Transformers
23.24 Tap-Staggering Method
23.25 Voltage Regulation and Short-Circuit Capacity
23.26 Loading Capability of a Line
23.27 Compensation in Power Systems
23.29 Static Compensators
23.30 Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System Controllers
23.30.1 Series Controllers
23.30.3 Series–Series Controllers
23.30.4 Series–Shunt Controllers
23.30.5 Power Flow Control
23.30.6 Static Var Compensator
23.30.7 Unified Power Flow Controller
23.30.8 Advantages Due to Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems Devices
23.31 Effect of Shunt Compensation
24 Renewable Energy Sources
24.1.1 Concentrated Solar Power Generation
24.1.2 Linear Fresnel Reflector Systems
24.1.3 Photovoltaic Generation of Power
24.1.6 Solar Power Installations
24.1.7 Operation With Grid System
24.2.2 Types of Wind Turbines
24.2.3 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
24.2.4 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
24.3.1 Modes of Geothermal Power Extraction
24.3.2 Types of Production Processes
24.6 Distributed Generation
24.7 Microgrid Management
24.8 Online Voltage Stability Monitoring and Control
24.10 Advantages of Renewable Energy Source Integration With grid
24.11 Grid Integration Considerations
24.12 Battery Storage System
25 Restructuring of Electrical Power Systems
25.2 Smart Grid Components
25.4 Smart Grid Technologies
25.5 Phasor Measurement Units
25.6 Open Smart Grid Protocol
Periodicals, Conference Proceedings, and Other References
Electrical Power Systems
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