Chapter
1.5 ALLOY DESIGN FOR MATERIAL PROPERTIES
1.6 ALLOY DESIGN FOR MATERIAL MANUFACTURABILITY
1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
2 - Modeling of Processing–Microstructure–Properties Relationships
2.1 PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
2.1.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
2.1.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2.1.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIPS
2.2.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
2.2.4.5 Relationship of Fatigue Properties to Tensile Properties
2.2.5 CORROSION RESISTANCE
2.2.6 EFFECTS OF ANISOTROPY OF MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES
2.3 MODELING OF MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS
2.4 MODELING OF PROCESSING AND ITS EFFECTS ON MICROSTRUCTURE
2.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR ALLOY AND PROCESS DESIGN
3 - Alloy Design Approaches
3.1 ALLOYS FOR AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
3.2 TRADITIONAL APPROACHES FOR ALLOY DESIGN
3.3 MODEL-BASED APPROACHES FOR ALLOY DESIGN
3.4 EXAMPLES OF MODEL-BASED ALLOY AND PRODUCT DESIGN
3.5 MICROSTRUCTURE REPRESENTATION FOR MODEL-BASED ALLOY DESIGN
4.1 ALUMINUM ALLOYS FOR AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM ALLOYS
4.3 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF WROUGHT, PH ALUMINUM ALLOYS
4.3.1 ALLOYING FOR PRECIPITATION HARDENING
4.3.1.1 Phase Equilibria Considerations
4.3.1.2 Precipitation Reactions
4.3.1.2.1 Precipitation Mechanisms
4.3.1.2.2 Effects of Defects and Trace Elements
4.3.1.2.3 Formation and Effects of PFZs
4.3.1.2.4 Precipitation in Specific Alloy Systems
4.3.1.2.5 Modeling of Precipitation
4.3.1.3 Mechanisms and Modeling of Precipitation Hardening
4.3.1.3.1 Hardening by Shearable Precipitates
4.3.1.3.2 Hardening by Orowan Mechanism
4.3.1.3.3 Effects of Precipitate Shape
4.3.1.4 Integrated Process Modeling for Precipitation Hardening
4.3.1.5 Effects of Precipitation Hardening on Property Combinations
4.3.2 ALLOYING FOR CONTROL OF MATRIX MICROSTRUCTURE
4.3.2.1 Matrix Microstructure Development and the Effects of Dispersoids
4.3.2.2 Specific Alloy Systems
4.3.2.3 Quench Sensitivity
4.3.2.4 Modeling of Matrix Microstructure Evolution
4.3.2.5 Effects of Matrix Microstructure on Property Combinations
4.3.3 EFFECTS OF IMPURITY ELEMENTS
4.4 PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTY RELATIONS IN WROUGHT, PH ALUMINUM ALLOYS
4.4.1 MODELING OF STRENGTH
4.4.2 DUCTILITY AND STRAIN HARDENING BEHAVIOR
4.4.3 DURABILITY AND DAMAGE TOLERANCE PROPERTIES
4.4.3.1 Fracture Toughness
4.4.3.2 Fatigue Properties
4.4.3.2.1 Fatigue Strength/Life
4.4.3.2.2 Fatigue Crack Growth
4.4.3.2.3 Modeling of Fatigue Behavior
4.4.3.3 Corrosion Behavior
4.4.3.3.1 Pitting Corrosion
4.4.3.3.2 Intergranular Corrosion
4.4.3.3.3 Exfoliation Corrosion
4.4.3.3.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking
4.5 COMMERCIAL ALUMINUM ALLOYS
4.5.3.1 Strength Improvements Relative to 7075-T6
4.5.3.2 Development of T73 Temper
4.5.3.3 Higher Purity Alloys for Controlled Toughness
4.5.3.4 Development of Alloys With High Strength and SCC Resistance
4.5.3.5 Elimination of Mid-Plane Defects
4.5.3.6 Improvements in Thick Products Beyond 7050
4.5.3.7 Ultrahigh Strength Alloys
4.5.3.8 Minimizing of Anisotropy
4.5.3.9 Summary of 7XXX Series Alloy Development
4.6 ALUMINUM ALLOY AND PRODUCT DESIGN
4.6.1 ALUMINUM ALLOY DESIGN
4.6.1.1 Work Hardening and Grain Refinement
4.6.1.2 Solid Solution Strengthening
4.6.1.3 Dispersion Strengthening
4.6.2 NEW ALLOY DESIGN IN THE TRADITIONAL COMPOSITION SPACE
4.6.2.1 Rapid Solidification Processed Alloys
4.6.2.2 Computational Alloy Design
4.6.3 NEW ALLOY DESIGN WITH ALTERNATIVE COMPOSITIONS
4.6.4 MODELING FOR NEW ALLOY DESIGN
4.6.5 INTEGRATED ALUMINUM ALLOY/PRODUCT DESIGN
5.1 TITANIUM ALLOYS FOR AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
5.2 CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS, AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.2.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.3 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.3.1 ALLOYING OF TITANIUM
5.3.1.2 Solid Solubility of Alloying Elements
5.3.1.3 Alloying of Near-α Alloys
5.3.1.4 Alloying of α/β Alloys
5.3.1.5 Alloying of β Alloys
5.3.1.6 Phases and Phase Relationships
5.3.1.6.1 Equilibrium Phases
5.3.1.6.2 Nonequilibrium Phases
5.3.1.6.3 Phase Relationships
5.3.1.6.4 Modeling of Phase Relationships
5.3.2 PROCESSING OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.3.2.1 Primary Working of Titanium Alloys
5.3.2.2 Secondary Working of Titanium Alloys
5.3.2.3 Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys
5.3.2.4 Modeling of Thermomechanical Processing
5.3.2.5 Processes for Cost-Affordable Titanium Alloys
5.3.3 MICROSTRUCTURE OF TITANIUM ALLOYS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO PROCESSING
5.3.3.1 Microstructure and Texture of Titanium Alloys
5.3.3.1.1 Microstructure of Titanium Alloys
5.3.3.1.2 Texture in Titanium Alloys
5.3.3.1.3 Defects in Titanium Alloys
5.3.3.2 Effects of Processing on Microstructure and Texture
5.3.3.3 Modeling of Microstructure and Texture
5.4 PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ALLOYS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO COMPOSITION, PROCESSING, AND MICROSTRUCTURE
5.4.3 DURABILITY AND DAMAGE TOLERANCE PROPERTIES
5.4.3.1 Fatigue Strength/Life
5.4.3.1.1 High Cycle Fatigue Behavior
5.4.3.1.2 Low Cycle Fatigue Behavior
5.4.3.3 Fracture Toughness
5.4.4 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
5.4.5 HIGH TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
5.4.6 SUMMARY OF COMPOSITION–PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIPS
5.4.7 MODELING OF COMPOSITION–PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIPS
5.4.7.1 Modeling of Strength
5.4.7.2 Modeling of Fracture Toughness
5.4.7.3 Integrated Modeling
5.5 COMMERCIAL TITANIUM ALLOYS
5.5.1 TI–6AL–4V AND TI–6AL–4V ELI
5.5.2.3 Ti–6Al–2Sn–2Zr–2Mo–2Cr–0.15Si (Ti-6-22-22)
5.5.2.4 α/β Alloys for Improved Formability
5.5.2.5 α/β Alloys for Intermediate Temperature Applications
5.5.4 NEAR-β AND METASTABLE β ALLOYS
5.5.4.2 Metastable β Alloys
6 - Ultrahigh Strength Steels
6.1 ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS FOR AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.3 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.3.1 ALLOYING OF ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.3.1.1 Alloying Elements in Steels
6.3.1.2 Alloying of Medium Carbon, Low Alloy Steels
6.3.1.3 Alloying of Secondary Hardening, High Alloy Steels
6.3.1.4 Alloying of Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
6.3.2 PHASES IN ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.3.2.3 Second-Phase Particles
6.3.3 COMPOSITION–PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE RELATIONSHIPS IN ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.3.3.1 Modeling of Ms Temperature
6.4 PROPERTIES OF ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO COMPOSITION, PROCESSING, AND MICROSTRUCTURE
6.4.1.1 Medium Carbon, Low Alloy Steels
6.4.1.2 Secondary Hardening, High Alloy Steels
6.4.1.3 Precipitation Hardening, Stainless Steels
6.4.3.1 Medium Carbon, Low Alloy Steels
6.4.3.2 Secondary Hardening, High Alloy Steels
6.4.3.3 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
6.4.6 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING BEHAVIOR
6.5 COMMERCIAL ULTRAHIGH STRENGTH STEELS
6.5.1 MEDIUM CARBON, LOW ALLOY STEELS
6.5.2 SECONDARY HARDENING, HIGH ALLOY STEELS
6.5.3 PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS
7.1 THE PROMISE AND TIMING OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.2 KEY CHALLENGES FOR MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.4 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.4.1 CONCEPTS OF MICROSTRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY AND ALLOYING EFFICIENCY
7.4.2 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ADDITION ON TEXTURE
7.4.3 PRECIPITATION IN COMMERCIAL MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.4.4 EFFECT OF MICROALLOYING ON PRECIPITATION
7.5 PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTIES OF MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
7.5.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL EVOLUTION DURING THERMOMECHANICAL PROCESSING
7.5.2 STRENGTH–DUCTILITY RESPONSE
7.5.2.1 Low Formability: Effect of Composition
7.5.2.2 Tension–Compression Yield Asymmetry
7.5.2.3 Role of Second-Phase Particles
7.5.2.4 Influence of Grain Size on Twinning and Strengthening
7.5.2.5 Ductility of Magnesium Alloys
7.5.2.6 Superposition of Various Strengthening Mechanisms and Microstructural Efficiency
8 - Complex Concentrated Alloys Including High Entropy Alloys
8.1 POTENTIAL AND CHALLENGES FOR CCAS FOR AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS
8.2 FOUNDATIONAL INFORMATION ON HEAS
8.2.1.1 The High Entropy Effect
8.2.1.2 The Lattice Distortion Effect
8.2.1.3 The Sluggish Diffusion Effect
8.2.1.4 The “Cocktail” Effect
8.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CCAS
8.3.1 CONSTITUENT ELEMENT-BASED CLASSIFICATION
8.3.2 TRADITIONAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE-BASED CLASSIFICATION
8.3.3 MICROSTRUCTURE-BASED CLASSIFICATION
8.3.4 DENSITY-BASED CLASSIFICATION
8.4 PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF CCAS
8.5 PROCESSING–MICROSTRUCTURE–PROPERTIES OF CCAS
8.5.1 LINKING CCA CORE EFFECTS TO DEFORMATION MICROMECHANISMS
8.5.2 STRENGTH–DUCTILITY RESPONSE
9 - Alloy Design for Advanced Manufacturing Processes
9.1.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL REQUIREMENT FOR SUPERPLASTICITY
9.1.2 DESIGN OF ALLOYS FOR SPF
9.1.2.1 Microstructural Design of Aluminum Alloys for Superplasticity
9.1.2.2 Microstructural Design of Titanium Alloys for Superplasticity
9.2 FRICTION STIR WELDING
9.2.1 OVERVIEW OF JOINT EFFICIENCY IN AL ALLOYS ACHIEVED BY FSW
9.2.2 CORRELATING THERMAL CYCLE TO THE PHYSICAL MECHANISMS DURING FSW
9.2.2.1 Compositional Dependence of Joint Efficiency
9.2.3 FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGN OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS FOR FSW
9.2.3.1 Theoretical Approach: Design of HAZ Free Al Alloys for FSW
9.2.3.1.1 Design of Coarsening Resistant High-Strength Al Alloys
9.2.3.1.2 Dispersoid Assisted Core–Shell Model of Precipitation
9.2.3.1.3 Clustering-Mediated Precipitate Nucleation
9.2.3.1.4 Vacancy Trap Aided Precipitate Nucleation
9.3 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
9.3.1 CURRENT ALLOYS USED FOR POWDER-BED AM PROCESSES
9.3.2 DESIGN OF ALUMINUM AND TITANIUM ALLOYS FOR HIGHER PERFORMANCE IN ADDITIVELY MANUFACTURED COMPONENTS
9.3.2.1 Build Variability and Inconsistency: Probabilistic Aspect
9.3.2.2 Framework for ICME Alloy Design for Powder-Based AM
9.3.2.2.1 Theoretical Strategy for Designing High-Performance Ti Alloys Intended Toward PBAM Processes
9.3.2.2.2 Theoretical Strategy for Designing High-Performance Al Alloys Intended Toward PBAM Processes
10 - Insertion of New Alloys and Process Technologies
10.1 INSERTION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
10.1.1 TRADITIONAL APPROACHES
10.1.2 BARRIERS TO INSERTION
10.2 ACCELERATED INSERTION OF TECHNOLOGIES
A.1 THERMODYNAMIC MODELING
B.1 MATERIALS INFORMATICS
C.1 SUPERPOSITION OF STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
Metallurgy and Design of Alloys with Hierarchical Microstructures
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