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Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Ecology and Management

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Contents

Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: General Introduction

1.1 What Are Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams (IRES)?

1.2 Causes of Flow Intermittence

1.3 Global Distribution and Areal Importance of IRES

1.4 Trends in a Context of Water Scarcity and Climate Change

1.5 Ecological Features of IRES

1.6 Legislation, Protection, Restoration, and Management of IRES

1.7 The Structure of This Book

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2.1: Geomorphology and Sediment Regimes of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

2.1.1 Introduction

Determinants of IRES Catchment Conditions

Geomorphological Zones in IRES

2.1.2 Upland Zone

2.1.3 Piedmont Zone

2.1.4 Lowland Zone

2.1.5 Floodout Zone

2.1.6 Distinctions in IRES Longitudinal Trends

2.1.7 Influence of Human Activities on IRES Morphology and Sediment Regimes

2.1.8 Diversity of IRES at a Global Scale

2.1.9 Synthesis and New Research Directions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2.2: Flow Regimes in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2 Controls on the Natural Flow Regime of IRES

2.2.3 Methods to Characterize Flow Regimes of IRES

Wet/Dry Mapping

Imagery: From Satellites to Site Cameras

Field Loggers and Flow Surrogates

Hydrological Metrics

Modeling

2.2.4 Describing and Classifying Flow Regimes of IRES: Case Studies

2.2.5 Conclusions: Research Needs and Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2.3: Hydrological Connectivity in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 What Governs Hydrological Connectivity in IRES?

2.3.3 Hydrological Connectivity, Intermittence, and Surface Water Drying and Rewetting in IRES

2.3.4 Longitudinal Hydrological Connectivity in IRES

2.3.5 Lateral Hydrological Connectivity in IRES

2.3.6 Vertical Hydrological Connectivity in IRES

2.3.7 A Preliminary Conceptual Framework for Exploring Intermittence, Connectivity, and Interacting Hydrological Dimensio ...

2.3.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 3.1: Water Physicochemistry in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Spatial Variability of Physicochemistry in IRES

The Longitudinal Dimension

The Vertical Dimension

The Lateral Dimension

3.1.3 Temporal Variability of Water Physicochemistry in IRES

Daily Variability

Seasonal Variability

Seasonal variability along the longitudinal dimension

Seasonal variability along the vertical dimension

Seasonal variability along the lateral dimension

Interannual Variability in Physicochemistry: Some Factors Involved

Temporal Variability at Longer Scales: IRES in the Context of Global Change

3.1.4 Changes in Water Physicochemistry During Drying and Rewetting

Physicochemistry in Remnant Pools

Temperature

Dissolved oxygen

Salinity

Turbidity

pH

Physicochemistry During Complete Drying and the Rewetting Front

3.1.5 Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 3.2: Nutrient and Organic Matter Dynamics in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

3.2.1 The ‘Biogeochemical Heartbeat’ of IRES

3.2.2 Nutrient and OM Dynamics Across Hydrological Phases in IRES

Contraction

Fragmentation

Drying (Desiccation)

Expansion

3.2.3 Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities

References

Chapter 4.1: The Biota of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Prokaryotes, Fungi, and Protozoans

4.1.1 Role and Relevance of Microbes in IRES

4.1.2 Diversity of Prokaryotes in IRES

Factors Controlling Prokaryotic Communities in IRES

Prokaryotic Diversity in IRES vs perennial rivers and streams

4.1.3 Diversity of Fungi in IRES

Factors Controlling Fungal Communities in IRES

Fungal Diversity in IRES vs perennial rivers and streams

4.1.4 Diversity of Protozoans in IRES

Factors Controlling Protozoan Communities in IRES

Protozoan Diversity in IRES vs. Perennial Rivers and Streams

4.1.5 Resistance and Resilience of Microbes in IRES

Refugial Habitats

Microbial Life Strategies

4.1.6 Microbial Diversity and Ecosystem Functioning in IRES

Roles of Microbes in River Ecosystem Functioning

Microbial Functioning in IRES and Links With Microbial Community Structure

4.1.7 Future Challenges

References

Chapter 4.2: The Biota of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Algae and Vascular Plants

4.2.1 Introduction: Primary Producers in IRES

4.2.2 Microbial Primary Producers in IRES: Cyanobacteria and Algae

Morphological and Physiological Adaptations to Drying

Algal-Derived Stream Metabolism in IRES

Latitudinal Variation in Algal Community Composition

Mediterranean IRES

Hot-desert IRES

Cold-desert IRES

4.2.3 Vascular Aquatic Plants

Vascular Macrophytes in IRES

Vascular Plant Adaptations to Drying

Functional groups

Life History Traits Involved in Tolerance to Drying

Implications of Drying for Vascular Plant Species Richness

4.2.4 Vascular Riparian Plants

Riparian Vegetation Along IRES in Different Ecoregions

Riparian Plant Adaptations in IRES

Reproductive Trait Adaptations and Trade-Offs

Landscape Biodiversity Patterns

Landscape context and connectivity

Rare and endemic riparian species

Riparian community context

4.2.5 Conservation and Management Issues of Primary Producers in IRES

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4.3: The Biota of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Aquatic Invertebrates

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 IRES as Habitats for Aquatic Invertebrates

4.3.3 Taxonomic Diversity of IRES Invertebrate Communities

Temporal Variability in Taxonomic Diversity

Spatial Variability in Taxonomic Diversity

Phylogenetic Diversity

4.3.4 Functional Diversity of IRES Invertebrate Communities

4.3.5 Invertebrate Adaptations to Flow Intermittence

Refuge Use Promotes Persistence in IRES

Life Cycle Adaptations and Refuge Use Interact to Promote Survival

Adaptations to IRES Are Trade-Offs That Also Influence Other Aspects of Survival

4.3.6 Threats to IRES Invertebrate Communities

4.3.7 Managing IRES to Promote Aquatic Invertebrate Biodiversity

4.3.8 Conclusions and Future Research Priorities

References

Chapter 4.4: The Biota of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Terrestrial AND Semiaquatic Invertebrates

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Habitat Requirements of IRES Invertebrates

4.4.3 Taxonomic Diversity of TSAI Communities

4.4.4 Functional Diversity of TSAI Communities

4.4.5 Adaptations of TSAI to Flow Intermittence

4.4.6 Threats to the TSAI Communities of IRES

4.4.7 Managing IRES to Preserve TSAI Diversity and Their Ecological Functions

4.4.8 Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs

4.4.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4.5: The Biota of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: Fishes

4.5.1 Introduction

4.5.2 The fish fauna of IRES

African IRES and Their Fishes

Australian IRES and Their Fishes

North American IRES and Their Fishes

IRES of Mediterranean Europe and Their Fishes

4.5.3 Why Do Fish Live in IRES?

4.5.4 How Do Fish Survive in IRES?

4.5.5 Threats to Fishes in Intermittent Rivers

Drought and Climate Change

Water Extraction, River Regulation, and Fragmentation of Habitat

Alien Species

4.5.6 Conservation Priorities for Fish in IRES

4.5.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4.6: The Biota of Intermittent and Ephemeral Rivers: Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals

4.6.1 Introduction

4.6.2 Importance of IRES for Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals

Water and Food Resources

Breeding and Nesting Sites

Aquatic and Terrestrial Movement Corridors

Migration Stopovers and Resting and Shelter Areas

4.6.3 Ecological Roles of Wildlife in IRES

Consumers, Prey, and Seed Dispersal Agents

Landscape Engineers

Nutrient Cycling

4.6.4 Flow Intermittence Effects on Wildlife

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds

Mammals

4.6.5 Wildlife Adaptations to Cope With Flow Intermittence

Morphological Adaptations

Physiological Adaptation

Behavioral Adaptations

4.6.6 Vulnerability, Conservation, and Management of Wildlife in IRES

Flow Alteration and Habitat Degradation

Water Pollution

Spread of Invasive Species and Diseases

Climate Change

Recommendations for Conservation and Management in the Context of Global Change

4.6.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4.7: Food Webs and Trophic Interactions in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

4.7.1 Introduction

4.7.2 The Base of IRES Food Webs

4.7.3 Consumer-Resource Dynamics in IRES

4.7.4 Multidimensional Interactions Within IRES

Longitudinal Interactions

Lateral Interactions

Vertical Interactions

4.7.5 Effects of Regional Differences on Food Webs in IRES

4.7.6 Structure of IRES Food Webs

4.7.7 Trophic Interactions in IRES in the Future

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4.8: Resistance, Resilience, and Community Recovery in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

4.8.1 Introduction: Challenges of Persisting in IRES

4.8.2 Resistance Mechanisms of Aquatic Taxa

Remnant Pools

Hyporheic Zone

Desiccation-Resistant Stages

4.8.3 Resilience Mechanisms of Aquatic Taxa

Dispersal via Drift

Dispersal via Crawling and Swimming

Aerial Dispersal

Environmental Cues That Trigger Dispersal

4.8.4 Aquatic Community Recovery Patterns Following Flow Resumption

4.8.5 Dynamics of Terrestrial Communities Inhabiting Dry Streambeds

4.8.6 Genetic Implications of Different Modes of Resistance and Resilience

4.8.7 Human Impacts Impair Resistance and Resilience Processes

Hydrological Alterations

Physical Alterations

4.8.8 Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4.9: Habitat Fragmentation and Metapopulation, Metacommunity, and Metaecosystem Dynamics in Intermittent Rivers an ...

4.9.1 Introduction

4.9.2 Connectivity, Fluxes, and Dispersal in River Networks Fragmented by Flow Intermittence

IRES as Dynamic and Shifting Habitat Mosaics

Flow Intermittence and Connectivity

Flow Intermittence and Dispersal

4.9.3 Metapopulation Dynamics in IRES

Conceptual Background of Metapopulation Ideas

Metapopulations in IRES: Why So Few Models?

How to Deal With Dispersal in Dendritic Networks?

How to Deal With Dynamic and Shifting Habitat Mosaics?

Existing Metapopulation Studies in IRES

Where to Go From Here?

4.9.4 Metacommunity Dynamics in IRES

Conceptual Background of Metacommunity Ideas

How to Study Metacommunities in IRES?

Species Turnover and Nestedness in IRES Metacommunities

Metacommunities in IRES

Biodiversity Partitioning in IRES

Where to Go From Here?

4.9.5 Metaecosystem Dynamics in IRES

Conceptual Background of Metaecosystem Ideas

IRES as Metaecosystems: Insights From Organic Matter Dynamics

Where to Go From Here?

4.9.6 Research and Management Perspectives

4.9.7 Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 4.10: Genetic, Evolutionary, and Biogeographical Processes in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

4.10.1 Introduction

4.10.2 Microevolutionary Ecology Processes in IRES

Characteristic Traits to Cope With Life in IRES

Potential Trade-Offs in IRES: To Stay or to Leave?

Genetic Structure in IRES

4.10.3 Macroevolutionary Ecology Processes in IRES

4.10.4 Evolutionary Processes at the Ecosystem Level in IRES

Biological Traits in IRES and Their Relation to Ecosystem Functions

Biodiversity-Ecosystem Functions Relationships in IRES

Recurrent Ecological Succession in IRES as a Framework for Fast Evolution

4.10.5 Global Biogeographical and Macroecological Patterns of Aquatic Organisms in IRES

Local and Regional Factors Determining Diversity in IRES

Speciation, Extinction, and Immigration in IRES

Global Trait Patterns in IRES

4.10.6 IRES Are Ideal Settings for the Study of Ecology and Evolution: Conclusions and Future Research

Further Reading

Chapter 5.1: Anthropogenic Threats to Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

5.1.1 Introduction: The Main Threats to IRES

5.1.2 Hydrological Alterations in IRES

Hydrological Alterations Associated With Anthropogenic Water Withdrawals

Hydrological Alterations That Induce Perennial Flow in Natural IRES

5.1.3 Physical and Chemical Alterations in IRES

Exploitation of IRES and Dry Riverbeds by Humans

IRES and Water Quality Degradation

5.1.4 Biological Alterations in IRES: Invasive Species

5.1.5 Cascading Effects of Hydrological, Physical, Chemical, and Biological Alterations in IRES on Adjacent Ecosystems

5.1.6 The Challenge of Assessing the Biological and Ecological Condition of IRES

5.1.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5.2: Ecosystem Services, Values, and Societal Perceptions of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

5.2.1 Introduction

5.2.2 What Ecosystem Services are Provided by IRES?

5.2.3 Valuing the ES of IRES

5.2.4 Societal Perceptions of IRES

5.2.5 Conclusions and Prognosis

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5.3: Governance, Legislation, and Protection of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 Brief History of Water Law Around the World

5.3.3 IRES Recognition in Water and Environmental Law

International Treaties: The Ramsar Convention

United States

European Union

Latin America and the Caribbean

Australia and New Zealand

Canada

South Africa

India

Israel and Palestine

5.3.4 Flow Intermittence Complicating the Governance of Water Use and Environmental Protection

5.3.5 A Way Forward for Sustainable Governance, Legislation, and Protection of IRES

5.3.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5.4: Restoration Ecology of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

5.4.1 Introduction

5.4.2 IRES and Their Catchments

5.4.3 Stream Restoration Background

5.4.4 Degradation and Restoration in a Catchment Context

5.4.5 Hydrological Impacts and Their Restoration

Altered Flooding Regimes

Loss of Flows

Increased Periods of Zero Flows

Antidrought

5.4.6 Riparian Zone Degradation and Restoration

5.4.7 Restoration of Instream Habitat and Refuges

5.4.8 Restoring Refuges and Colonization Pathways

5.4.9 Measuring Restoration Trajectory

5.4.10 Things to Consider for Now and for the Future

5.4.11 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5.5: Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM) of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams

5.5.1 Introduction

5.5.2 The Management Challenge

Ecological Context

Social Context

5.5.3 Strategic Adaptive Management (SAM)

Definition

Framework

Making It Work

5.5.4 Case Studies—Status, Successes, Challenges, and the Future

Crocodile River, Kruger National Park (South Africa)

Status

Successes

Challenges

Future

Tankwa Karoo National Park (South Africa)

Status

Successes

Challenges

Future

Edward-Wakool River System—Tuppal Creek (Australia)

Status

Successes

Challenges

Future

Macquarie Marshes (Australia)

Status

Successes

Challenges

Future

5.5.5 Making It Work—A Shared Journey

5.5.6 Global Applications

5.5.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Further Reading

Chapter 6: Conclusions: Recent Advances and Future Prospects in the Ecology and Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephe ...

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Fourteen Themes in the Ecology and Management of IRES

6.3 Remaining Gaps in Our Knowledge and Understanding of the Ecology and Management of IRES

Methodological Gaps and Opportunities

Geographical and Disciplinary Gaps and Opportunities

Conceptual Gaps and Opportunities

6.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Index

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