Front Cover

Performance of Bio-based Building Materials

Copyright

Contents

List of contributors

Preface

Acknowledgement

Chapter 1: Introduction to the performance of bio-based building materials

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Bio-based building materials and their role in the modern building sector

1.3 Use in construction and legislation

1.4 Current issues and challenges related to performance of bio-based building materials

1.4.1 The sustainable agenda

1.4.2 Sustainable planning

1.4.3 Embodied energy

1.4.4 Challenges to the use of bio-based building materials

References

Chapter 2: Wood as bio-based building material

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Solid wood

2.2.1 Structure of wood

2.2.1.1 Elemental composition

2.2.2 Wood properties

2.2.2.1 Wood appearance

2.2.2.2 Density of wood

2.2.2.3 Water sorption and permeability

2.2.2.4 Mechanical properties of wood

2.2.3 Wood treatments

2.2.4 Wood performance

2.2.5 Applications of wood in construction

2.3 Cross laminated timber

2.3.1 Background

2.3.2 Why has the use of CLT expanded so rapidly?

2.3.3 CLT—Properties and performance

2.3.4 The application of CLT in different building types

2.3.4.1 The game changers

2.3.4.2 Tall timber buildings/the vertical timber city

2.3.4.3 Where to now for CLT and other engineered timber products?

2.4 Panels

2.4.1 Plywood

2.4.2 Particleboard

2.4.3 Oriented strand board

2.4.4 Fibreboard

2.4.5 Other panel types

2.4.6 Future directions for panel materials

2.5 Wood plastic composites

2.5.1 Introduction

2.5.2 The components of WPCs

2.5.3 The manufacturing process

2.5.4 Wood polymer composites in the construction sector

2.5.5 Performance of the wood polymer composites

2.6 Cellulose, pulp and paper

2.6.1 Introduction

2.6.2 Cellulose

2.6.3 Pulp and paper

2.6.4 Cellulose, pulp and paper properties

2.6.4.1 Physical properties

2.6.4.2 Chemical properties

2.6.4.3 Cellulose insulation properties and performances

2.6.5 Applications of cellulose as insulation

2.7 Bark and cork

2.7.1 Introduction

2.7.2 Formation of bark and cork

2.7.3 Cork structure and properties

2.7.4 Cork in construction

References

Chapter 3: Nonwood bio-based materials

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Flax

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Morphology of flax fibres and shives

3.2.3 Application of flax for building materials

3.2.4 Other applications of flax fibres

3.2.5 Conclusion

3.3 Hemp

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 Morphology of hemp fibres

3.3.3 Applications of hemp fibres for building materials

3.3.4 Conclusion

3.4 Straw

3.4.1 Structure and composition of straw

3.4.2 Straw bales as a construction material

3.4.3 Hygrothermal properties of straw bales

3.4.4 Mechanical properties of straw bales

3.4.5 Acoustic properties of straw bale construction

3.4.6 Fire resistance of straw bale construction

3.4.7 Compressed straw board

3.4.8 Conclusion

3.5 Bamboo and rattan

3.5.1 Introduction

3.5.2 Main characteristics and properties of developed products regarding their suitability for the building sector

3.5.3 Conclusion

3.6 Reed

3.6.1 Reed as thatching material

3.6.2 Performance of reed

3.6.2.1 Premature decay in reed thatched roofs

3.6.2.2 Composition of reed stem material

3.6.2.3 Water absorption and decomposition of reed material

3.6.2.4 Water absorption of different origins of reed

3.6.3 Conclusions

3.7 Wool

3.7.1 Introduction to wool fibre

3.7.1.1 Structure and composition

The main fibre

The surrounding lipid layer

Microscopic properties

3.7.1.2 Wool as a construction material

How wool based insulation compares

3.7.2 Thermal performance

3.7.3 Acoustic performance

3.7.4 Indoor air quality performance

3.7.4.1 Hygric performance

3.7.4.2 Volatile organic compound abatement

3.7.5 Conclusions

3.8 Peat

3.8.1 Introduction

3.8.2 Distribution of mires and peatland

3.8.2.1 Global perspective

3.8.2.2 EU perspective

3.8.3 Producing methods

3.8.4 Properties of peat

Chemical properties

Mechanical properties

Thermal and moisture properties

Fire resistance

Protection from radon

Rodent resistance

Technological properties

3.8.5 Using peat in building structures in the past

3.8.3 Current peat production techniques

3.8.7 Novel technologies of using peat

3.8.8 Conclusion

3.9 Grass

3.9.1 Introduction

3.9.2 Species of herbs for testing thermal conductivity

3.9.3 Properties of biomass of mowing herbs

Thermal properties

Moisture conditions

Chemical properties

Fire resistance

Mechanical properties

Technological properties

3.9.4 Using grass in building structures in the past

3.9.5 Conclusion

3.10 Vegetal pith

3.10.1 Introduction

3.10.2 Sources of vegetal pith

3.10.3 Morphology and characterisation of vegetal pith

3.10.3.1 Morphology of vegetal pith

3.10.3.2 Chemical composition

3.10.3.3 Thermal properties

3.10.3.4 Hygroscopic and sorption properties

3.10.3.5 Thermal degradation

3.10.4 Vegetal pith as a building material

3.10.4.1 Thermal insulation boards

3.10.4.2 Particleboards

3.10.4.3 Concretes and blocks

3.10.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Protection of the bio-based material

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Potential hazards and degrading agents

4.2.1 Moisture

4.2.2 Fungi and bacteria

4.2.2.1 Decay fungi

4.2.2.2 Discolouring fungi

4.2.3 Insects

4.2.3.1 General

4.2.3.2 Coleoptera (beetles)

4.2.3.3 Anobiidae (furniture beetles)

A. punctatum (common furniture beetle)

4.2.3.4 Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles)

H. bajulus (house longhorn beetle)

4.2.3.5 Lyctidae (powder-post beetles)

L. brunneus (brown powder-post beetle)

4.2.3.6 Isoptera (termites)

4.2.3.7 Subterranean termites

Rhinotermitidae

4.2.4 Marine borers

4.2.4.1 Teredinidae

4.2.4.2 Limnoriidae

4.2.5 Systems describing physical and biological hazards

4.3 Material protection

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.2 Biocides

4.3.3 Preservation techniques

4.3.4 Influence of the preservation techniques on the performance

4.3.5 Conclusions

4.4 Wood modification

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Modification systems

4.4.2.1 Thermal modification

4.4.2.2 Treatments with oils and waxes

4.4.2.3 Acetylation

4.4.2.4 Treatment with resins

4.4.2.5 Furfurylation

4.4.2.6 DMDHEU

4.4.2.7 Phenol

4.5 Coatings and hydrophobes

4.5.1 Introduction—Why surface finishes

4.5.2 Surface finishing materials

4.5.3 Classification of surface finishing products

4.5.3.1 Pigmented paints

4.5.3.2 Coating permeability and wood moisture content in service

4.5.3.3 Semitransparent and transparent finishes

4.5.3.4 How to increase resistance of a semitransparent or transparent finish and wood beneath against UV light

4.5.3.5 Natural oil based finishes

4.5.3.6 Hydrophobisation agents

4.5.4 Maintenance

4.6 Protection by design and maintenance

4.6.1 Principles

4.6.2 Moisture protection

4.6.3 Physical barriers against termites, beetle larvae and marine borers

4.6.4 Quantifying the effect of protective measures

References

Chapter 5: Performance of the bio-based materials

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Function

5.2.1 Bio-based materials for structural purposes

5.2.2 Bio-based materials for non-structural purposes

5.2.2.1 Aesthetics

5.2.2.2 Dimensional and shape stability

5.2.2.3 Stiffness and hardness

5.2.2.4 Slip resistance

5.2.2.5 Thermal insulation

5.2.2.6 Acoustic protection

5.2.2.7 Well-being

5.3 Durability

5.3.1 Introduction

5.3.2 Biological decay and natural durability

5.3.3 Use classes and enhancing durability

5.3.4 Integrated approach of durability

5.3.5 Durability and service life concept for wood products

5.3.5.1 In ground contact conditions

5.3.5.2 Exterior out of ground contact conditions

5.3.5.3 Interior conditions

5.3.5.4 Durability of wood products and non-wood materials

5.3.6 Determination of durability by laboratory accelerated testing

5.3.7 Test methods

5.3.8 Statistical analysis

5.3.9 Position of wood products as construction material

5.4 Moisture performance

5.4.1 Bio-based building materials and moisture

5.4.2 Moisture sources

5.4.3 Effects of moisture on other material properties

5.4.4 Measures for quantifying moisture performance

5.5 Aesthetics

5.5.1 Definition and function of aesthetics

5.5.2 Aesthetic versatility of bio-based materials

5.5.3 Properties influencing perception of materials

5.5.4 Aesthetics and service life

5.5.4.1 Factors influences change of aesthetical properties

5.5.4.2 Methods for monitoring of changes to aesthetics appearance of biomaterials along the service life

5.5.5 Modelling of aesthetical performance

5.5.6 User preferences and expectations

5.5.7 Environmental impact of aesthetics on selection of bio-materials

5.6 Thermal performance

5.6.1 Introduction

5.6.2 Methods for measuring thermal conductivity

5.6.2.1 Hot plate (HP) method

5.6.2.2 Heat flow (HF) method

5.6.2.3 Transient plane source (TPS) method

5.6.2.4 Modified transient plane source (MTPS) method

5.6.2.5 Transient hot wire (THW) method

5.6.2.6 Transient hot strip (THS) method

5.6.2.7 Transient hot bridge (THB) method

5.6.3 Numerical modelling

5.6.4 Influence of wood properties on thermal conductivity of wood

5.6.4.1 Density

5.6.4.2 Wood MC

5.6.4.3 Wood orientation

5.6.4.4 Temperature

5.6.4.5 Other wood properties

5.6.5 Conclusions

5.7 Fire performance of bio-based building materials

5.7.1 An introduction to reaction to fire and resistance to fire

5.7.2 Fire safety of buildings with bio-based products

5.7.2.1 Reaction to fire performance of bio-based building products

5.7.2.2 European system for reaction to fire performance

5.7.2.3 Reaction to fire performance of wood products

5.7.3 Fire retardant treatments for wood products

5.7.3.1 Durability classes for fire performance – principles and methods

5.7.4 Conclusions on fire retardant treatments for wood products

5.7.5 Fire resistance of bio-based building products

5.7.5.1 Separating function

5.7.6 Load-bearing function

5.7.6.1 Testing of fire resistance of load-bearing elements

5.7.6.2 Simulation of fire resistance

References

Chapter 6: Performance of buildings

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Building physics

6.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2 Hygrothermal properties of bio-based building materials

6.2.3 Acoustic properties of bio-based building materials

6.2.4 Bio-based phase-change materials

6.2.5 Conclusions on bio-based materials contributing to building physics

6.3 Energy efficiency

6.3.1 The need to reduce energy requirement in buildings

6.3.2 Smart products and smart use of raw materials

6.3.2.1 Smart bio-based materials in the reduction of buildings energy use

6.3.3 Evaluation to some bio-based products characteristics

6.3.4 Prioritisation and choice of measures

6.4 Indoor air quality

6.4.1 Indoor air pollution

6.4.2 Primary pollutants

6.4.3 Biological pollutants

6.4.4 Secondary pollutants

6.4.5 Environmental parameters

6.4.5.1 Temperature

6.4.5.2 Relative humidity

6.4.5.3 Ventilation

6.4.6 Other parameters

6.4.6.1 Building occupants

6.4.6.2 VOC characteristics

6.4.6.3 Air velocity

6.4.7 Sampling and analysis of VOCs

6.4.8 Reducing emissions

6.4.8.1 Occupants

6.4.8.2 Architects and developers

6.4.8.3 Manufacturers

6.4.8.4 Government and organisations

6.4.9 Conclusion

6.5 Bio-based materials and human well-being in the built environment

6.5.1 Introduction

6.5.2 Primary concerns with human well-being in the builtenvironment

6.5.2.1 Psychophysiological well-being

6.5.2.2 Factors impacting well-being in buildings

Material and product related

Performance

Human factors/ergonomics

Design related

6.5.2.3 Measuring impact

6.5.3 Future prospects for bio-based materials and human health

References

Chapter 7: Test methods for bio-based building materials

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Laboratory testing

7.2.1 Bacteria, moulds and decay fungi

7.2.1.1 Basidiomycete decay fungi

7.2.1.2 Soft rot decay

7.2.1.3 Mould and blue-stain fungi

7.2.1.4 Bacteria

7.2.1.5 Combination tests

7.2.1.6 Interpretation and evaluation of test data

7.2.1.7 Development of testing methods for biobased materials

7.2.2 Insects

7.2.2.1 Subterranean termites

7.2.2.2 Lyctid (powderpost) beetle borers

7.2.2.3 Anobium punctatum (common furniture beetle)

7.2.2.4 Hylotrupes bajulus (longhorn beetle)

7.2.2.5 Tineola bisselliella (clothes moth) and Anthrenus flavipes (carpet beetle)

7.2.3 Marine borers

7.2.3.1 Major marine borer types

7.2.3.2 Rationale of laboratory testing with marine borers

7.2.3.3 Testing with limnoriids

7.2.3.4 Laboratory testing with teredinids

7.2.3.5 Conclusions regarding laboratory tests

7.2.4 Moisture dynamics

7.2.4.1 Moisture storage in wood

7.2.4.2 Characteristic MCs

7.2.4.3 Dynamic mechanical effects in the wood matrix

7.2.4.4 Equilibrium moisture content

7.2.4.5 Measuring MC

7.2.4.6 Gravimetric method (CEN/TS 13183-1)

7.2.4.7 Electrical resistance (CEN/TS 13183-2)

7.2.4.8 X-ray tomography (X-CT)

7.2.4.9 Neutron imaging

7.2.4.10 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging

7.2.4.11 Moisture dynamics

7.2.4.12 Floating test

7.2.4.13 Submersion test

7.2.4.14 Discrimination of wood species based on moisture dynamics

7.3 Field methods

7.3.1 Decay fungi, staining fungi, mould and bacteria

7.3.1.1 Decay fungi

In ground exposure – non-standard methods

In ground exposure – non-standard methods

Above ground exposure – non-standard methods

Above ground exposure – non-standard methods

Accelerated methods

7.3.1.2 Mould and staining fungi

Standard methods

Non-standard methods

Rating of discolouration

Bacteria

7.3.2 Insects

7.3.3 Marine borers

7.3.4 Moisture dynamics

7.3.4.1 Measurement methods

General aspects

7.3.4.2 Gravimetric methods – manual

7.3.4.3 Gravimetric methods – load cells

7.3.4.4 Electrical methods – resistive methods

7.3.4.5 Electrical methods – capacitive methods

7.3.4.6 Hygroscopic methods

7.3.4.7 Substitute sensors

7.3.4.8 Imaging

7.4 Weathering and leaching

7.4.1 Lab tests

7.4.1.1 Lab leaching procedures

7.4.1.2 Influence of pH

7.4.2 Field tests

7.4.2.1 Testing above ground – UC 3

7.4.2.2 Testing in ground – UC 4

7.4.3 Summary of weathering and leaching

7.5 Monitoring of structures and in-service testing

7.5.1 Introduction

7.5.2 Monitoring

7.5.2.1 Design standards overview

7.5.3 Moisture content monitoring

7.5.3.1 Moisture content assessment

7.5.3.2 Indirect environmental modeling moisture measurement

7.5.3.3 Physical moisture measurement

7.5.3.4 Other types of monitoring

7.5.3.5 Mechanical stresses

7.5.4 Insect monitoring

7.5.5 In-service testing

7.5.5.1 Visual inspection

7.5.5.2 Decay inspection

7.5.5.3 Instrumented survey

7.5.6 Summary of monitoring methods

References

Chapter 8: Modelling

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Mould development

8.2.1 Modelling approaches

8.2.2 Isopleth models

8.2.2.1 Sedlbauer’s isopleth model

8.2.2.2 Mould germination graph method

8.2.3 Biohygrothermal model/WufiBio

8.2.4 VTT model

8.2.5 Mould resistance design (MRD) model

8.2.6 Reliability analysis

8.3 Hygro-thermal models

8.3.1 General aspects

8.3.2 Single-Fickian model

8.3.2.1 Governing equations

8.3.2.2 Implementation in Abaqus code and applications

8.3.3 Multi-Fickian model

8.3.3.1 Governing equations

8.3.4 Implementation in Abaqus code and applications

8.3.5 Conclusions and future work

8.4 Modelling of weathering

8.4.1 Weathering as a deterioration process

8.4.2 Factors influencing changes to bio-based building materials due to weathering

8.4.3 Mechanisms of surface weathering at different levels

8.4.3.1 Molecular level

8.4.3.2 Cellular level

8.4.3.3 Tissue level

8.4.3.4 Macro level

8.4.4 Preparation of reference data for models

8.4.5 Estimation of the weathering extent

8.4.6 Determination of the weather dose

8.4.7 Methods for numerical modelling of weathering

8.4.7.1 Regression models

8.4.7.2 Dose-response models

8.4.7.3 Multi-way approach for modelling

8.4.8 Weathering models validation

8.5 Decay models

8.5.1 Model types

8.5.2 Modelling approaches and applications

8.5.2.1 Climate indices

8.5.2.2 Exposure, decay, and resistance models

Resistance models

Decay models

Exposure models

8.5.3 Application of models

8.5.3.1 Hazard mapping

8.5.3.2 Service life prediction and design guidance

8.5.4 Challenges

8.5.4.1 Data for modelling

8.5.4.2 Dealing with variability

8.5.5 Concluding remarks

8.6 Mechanical performance modelling

8.6.1 Background

8.6.2 Reliability aspects

8.6.2.1 Time influence

8.6.3 Degradation phenomena

8.6.3.1 Strength of decayed timber

8.6.4 Modelling approaches

8.6.5 Model applications

8.6.5.1 Cracks in structures

8.6.5.2 Pile foundations

8.6.5.3 Glulam beam in outdoor climate

Climate

Structural assessment

Service life prediction without biological deterioration

Service life prediction with biological deterioration

8.6.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Environmental assessment of bio-based building materials

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Environmental assessment of bio-based building materials

9.2.1 Environmental assessment of building materials from processing, use and end of life phase

9.2.1.1 Product stage (modules A1 to A3)

A1: Raw material supply

A2: Transportation from cultivation or production place to product manufacturing place

A3: Manufacturing of product

9.2.1.2 Construction stage (modules A4 to A5)

9.2.1.3 Use stage (modules B1 to B7)

9.2.1.4 End of life stage (C1 to C4)

9.2.2 Carbon accounting

9.2.3 Circular economy, bio-economy, and low-carbon economy

9.2.3.1 Circular economy

9.2.3.2 Bio-economy

9.2.3.3 Low-carbon economy

9.2.3.4 Circular economy, bio-economy and low-carbon economy in relation to bio-based building materials

9.3 Measurement and certification

9.3.1 Environmental profiles and eco-labels

9.3.1.1 Different types of eco-labels

Type I—Ecolabels

Type II—Self-declared environmental claims

Type III—Environmental declarations based on LCA

9.3.1.2 Type I—Ecolabels

Examples of the main ecolabels

Examples of requirements for bio-based products

9.3.1.3 Type II—Self-declared environmental claims

9.3.1.4 Type III—Environmental declarations based on LCA

9.3.1.5 How to obtain an EPD in Europe

9.3.1.6 Examples of certifications

9.3.1.7 Drivers

Whole building assessment methods

CE Marking

Specific country drivers

9.3.2 Environmental assessment of buildings

9.3.2.1 Whole building assessment schemes

BREEAM—United Kingdom

LEED—United States

DGNB—Germany

HQE—France

9.3.2.2 Sustainability assessment of buildings using EN 15978 (CEN (2011))

IMPACT compliant tools

Tally

ELODIE

Bionova Ltd

References

Chapter 10: Durability, efficacy and performance of bio-based construction materials: Standardisation background and syste ...

10.1 European standardisation of durability and performance

10.1.1 Introduction

10.1.2 Wood and wood-based products

10.1.2.1 CEN/TC 38 ‘durability of wood and wood-based products’: Background and objectives

10.1.3 Recent changes and future challenges

10.1.3.1 Biological resistance of wood and wood-based products

10.1.3.2 Performance

10.1.3.3 The moisture risk as a factor influencing performance

10.1.3.4 Durability to disfiguring fungi

10.1.3.5 Service life planning

10.1.4 Bio-based products

10.1.4.1 CEN/TC 411 ‘bio-based products’: Background, objectives, challenges

10.1.4.2 Scope of CEN/TC 411

10.1.4.3 Prestandardisation project KBBPS ‘knowledge based bio-based products’

10.1.4.4 Determination of the bio-based content: A key question

10.1.4.5 Overview of the existing methods of evaluation set up by CEN/TC 411

10.1.5 Biological durability of bio-based products

10.1.5.1 Resistance against moulds

10.1.5.2 Resistance against other biological agents

10.2 EC regulations related to wood-based and other construction products

10.2.1 Overview of the existing regulations

10.2.2 Focus on the construction products regulation

10.2.3 Focus on the biocidal products regulation

10.2.4 European legislation and mandates for bio-based products

References

Glossary

Index

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