Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Contents

Contributors

Foreword

Part I - Introduction

Chapter 1 - Introduction

References

Further reading

Part II - Burden of Disease: Prevalence of Predialysis Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations in Developed Countries

Chapter 2 - Prevalence of Predialysis Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations in Developed Countries: Canada

1 - The Canadian population

2 - Canada’s health care system

3 - Who is disadvantaged?

4 - Prevalence of predialysis chronic kidney disease in disadvantaged populations in Canada

5 - Immigrants and refugees

6 - Canada’s Aboriginal people

7 - Conclusions

References

Further reading

Chapter 3 - Prevalence of Predialysis Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations in Developed Countries: United States

1 - Racial/ethnic disparities in chronic kidney disease and the impact of low socioeconomic status

2 - Racial/ethnic disparities in the prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States

2.1 - African Americans

2.2 - Hispanics

2.3 - Asians

2.4 - Native Americans

2.5 - Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders

3 - Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 4 - Chronic Kidney Disease in China

1 - Prevalence of predialysis CKD in China

2 - Prevalence and incidence of dialysis patients in China

3 - Affordability and accessibility of dialysis in China

4 - Treatment and prognosis of dialysis patients in China

5 - Spectrum of CKD in China

References

Part III - Burden of Disease: Prevalence and Incidence of Predialysis Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations in Developing Countries

Chapter 5 - Prevalence of CKD in Uruguay

1 - Introduction

2 - Methodology

3 - Analytical determinations for screening CKD in Preventive Medicine Clinics

4 - Results

5 - Discussion

5.1 - Prevalence of proteinuria

5.2 - Prevalence of low GFR

5.3 - Prevalence of CKD (positive for proteinuria and/or low eGFR)

5.4 - Prevalence of CKD in Uruguay in the population aged above 65 years

6 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 6 - Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease and Associated Risk Factors in Cuba

1 - Introduction

2 - Social determinants and health system indicators regarding the development of kidney disease in Cuba: year 2014

3 - Patients with end-stage renal disease on renal replacement therapy

4 - Isle of Youth Study (ISYS)

5 - Methodology

5.1 - Phase 1: initial screening (November 15, 2004–April 30, 2006)

6 - Results

6.1 - Phase 1 in the population ≥20 years

6.1.1 - Demographics

6.2 - Positivity of kidney damage markers

6.3 - Renal function classification

6.4 - Phase 2: clinical confirmation and follow-up

6.5 - Results and analysis of phase 2

6.6 - Positivity of kidney damage markers in urine

6.7 - Classification of renal function

References

Part IV - Disparities in ESRD Among Disadvantaged Populations

Chapter 7 - End-Stage Renal Disease Among Indigenous Populations in Canada

1 - Introduction

2 - Terminology

3 - Health of Aboriginal people in Canada

4 - Prevalence and causes of end-stage renal disease among Aboriginal adults

5 - Prevalence and causes of end-stage renal disease among Aboriginal children

6 - Survival and quality of care for Aboriginal adults treated with dialysis

7 - Survival and quality of care for Aboriginal children treated with dialysis

8 - Kidney transplantation among Aboriginal adults

9 - Kidney transplantation among Aboriginal children

10 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 8 - Racial Differences in Kidney Disease and End-Stage Kidney Disease in the USA

1 - Introduction

2 - Causes of ESRD in the US population

2.1 - Diabetes mellitus

2.2 - Hypertension

2.3 - HIV-associated nephropathy

3 - Racial and ethnic disparities in dialysis care

4 - Racial and ethnic disparities in kidney transplantation

5 - Survival paradox

6 - Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9 - End-Stage Renal Disease in Mexico

1 - Introduction

2 - Epidemiology of treated ESRD

3 - Dialysis

4 - Dialysis outcomes

5 - Kidney transplantation

6 - Kidney transplantation outcomes

7 - Nephrology manpower

8 - Disparities in renal care

9 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 10 - End-Stage Renal Disease in Latin America

1 - Introduction

2 - The development of Nephrology and Dialysis and Transplantation Registries in Latin America

3 - Burden of ESRD in LA

3.1 - Methods

3.2 - Results

3.3 - Discussion

Acknowledgments

Conflicts of interest statement

References

Chapter 11 - Kidney Disease in Ethnic Minority Populations in the United Kingdom

1 - Introduction

2 - General issues around health/societal inequality in the United Kingdom

2.1 - Recognizing and measuring inequalities: coding and collection of ethnicity data in the United Kingdom

2.2 - Ethnic variations in the diagnosis, management, and outcomes of nonrenal, chronic conditions in the United Kingdom

3 - The epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in different ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

3.1 - Measuring and reporting of the eGFR in United Kingdom biochemistry labs

3.2 - The prevalence and severity of CKD among ethnic minority groups in the United Kingdom

3.3 - The effect of ethnicity on the progression of CKD in the United Kingdom

3.4 - Genetics of renal disease in the United Kingdom

3.5 - Interventions to reduce the severity and progression of CKD in ethnic minority groups

4 - The epidemiology of end-stage kidney disease in different ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

4.1 - The transition from chronic kidney disease to renal replacement therapy

4.2 - Quality of life on RRT

4.3 - Access to and outcomes following kidney transplantation

4.4 - End-of-life

5 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 12 - End-Stage Renal Disease in the Middle East

1 - Introduction

1.1 - Etiology of CKD

1.2 - Renal replacement therapy in the Middle East Countries

1.3 - Organ donation and transplantation in the Middle East

1.4 - The problem of inadequate organ donation in the Middle East

1.5 - Sources of organs for donation for kidney transplant in the Middle East

1.6 - Solutions to barriers of organ donation and transplantation in the Middle East

References

Chapter 13 - End Stage Renal Disease (ESKD) in Egypt and North Africa

1 - Introduction

2 - Kidney disease in North Africa

2.1 - Epidemiology

2.2 - Etiology

2.2.1 - Glomerulonephritis

2.2.2 - Diabetes and Hypertension

2.2.3 - Interstitial Nephritis

2.2.4 - Genetic Diseases

2.2.5 - Other Causes

3 - Burden of end-stage kidney disease

3.1 - Health burden

3.1.1 - Quantitation of Health Burden

3.1.1.1 - Years of Life Lost

3.1.1.2 - Years Lost due to Disability

3.2 - Economic burden

3.3 - Social burden

4 - Facing the challenge

4.1 - ESKD population dynamics

4.2 - Prevention

4.3 - Dialysis

4.4 - Transplantation

5 - Human resources

5.1 - Education and training

5.2 - Professional associations

5.3 - Renal patient associations

6 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 14 - End Stage Renal Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa

1 - Introduction

2 - Chronic kidney disease

3 - Healthcare resources for CKD

4 - Causes of chronic kidney disease in Sub-Saharan Africa

4.1 - Chronic glomerulonephritis

4.2 - Hypertension

4.3 - Diabetes mellitus

4.4 - HIV infection

4.5 - Obstructive nephropathy and other chronic interstitial nephritis

4.6 - Sickle cell nephropathy

5 - Renal replacement therapy

5.1 - Modality of renal replacement therapy

6 - Prevention of CKD

6.1 - Resources for CKD prevention

7 - Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15 - Kidney Disease in South Asia

1 - South Asia: why is the Population Disadvantaged?

2 - Epidemiology of kidney disease in South Asia

3 - Burden of CKD in South Asia

3.1 - Causes of CKD in South Asia

3.2 - Clinical presentation of CKD in South Asia: how is it different?

4 - CKD care in South Asia

4.1 - Access to CKD care

4.2 - Cost of CKD care in South Asia

5 - Improving CKD care: looking forward

References

Chapter 16 - ESRD in South-East Asia

1 - Introduction

2 - Status in individual countries

2.1 - Indonesia

2.2 - The Philippines

2.3 - Thailand

2.4 - Malaysia

2.5 - Cambodia

2.6 - Brunei

3 - Public–private partnership—a new incentive within Southeast Asia

4 - Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 17 - Kidney Disease in Maori and Pacific people in New Zealand

1 - Background

2 - Geography and climate

3 - Polynesian and European arrival

4 - Health inequality in New Zealand

5 - Mortality rates

6 - Diabetes

7 - Albuminuria and blood pressure in those without diabetes

8 - Glomerulonephritis

9 - Dialysis

10 - Transplantation

11 - Disparities in health care outcomes in nonrenal disease

12 - Pacific people

13 - Reasons for differences in incidence or ESKD and outcomes for Ma¯ori and Pacific people

14 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 18 - Kidney Disease Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in Australia

1 - Background

2 - Chronic kidney disease

2.1 - Epidemiology of CKD

2.2 - End-stage kidney disease

2.3 - Clinical characteristics of CKD in Aboriginal people

3 - Pathological basis of CKD

3.1 - Bringing the strands together

4 - Management of kidney disease among indigenous people

4.1 - Community-based CKD treatment programs

4.2 - Renal replacement therapy in Aboriginal people

References

Part V - Current View on Risk Factors

Chapter 19 - Current View on CKD Risk Factors: Traditional, Noncommunicable Diseases—Diabetes, Hypertension, and Obesity

1 - Introduction

2 - Diabetes

3 - Hypertension

4 - Obesity

5 - The interrelated nature of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension

6 - The way forward

7 - Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 20 - Risk Factors for Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations—Communicable Diseases, Environmental Factors, and...

1 - Introduction

2 - Communicable diseases and the kidney

2.1 - HIV and the kidney

2.2 - Hepatitis B virus and the kidney

2.3 - Hepatitis C virus and the kidney

3 - Kidney disease and environmental factors

3.1 - Malarial nephropathy

3.1.1 - Mechanism of Plasmodium Induced Renal Injury

3.1.2 - Renal Involvement in Malaria

3.2 - Schistosomal nephropathy

3.2.1 - Pathogenesis

3.2.2 - Glomerulonephritis

3.3 - Sickle cell disease and the kidney

3.3.1 - Epidemiology

3.3.2 - Magnitude of CKD in SCD

3.3.3 - Pathophysiology of Sickle Cell Nephropathy

3.3.4 - Clinical Manifestations

3.4 - Meso-American nephropathy

3.5 - Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu)

4 - Kidney disease and pollutants

4.1 - Nephrotoxins and the kidney

4.2 - Hydrocarbons and the kidney

4.3 - Heavy metal exposure and the kidney

4.3.1 - Cadmium

4.3.2 - Arsenic Poisoning

4.3.3 - Mercury Poisoning

4.3.4 - Lead Toxicity

5 - Conclusion

References

Chapter 21 - Poverty and Renal Disease

1 - Introduction

2 - Poverty and prevalent chronic kidney disease

2.1 - Interactions with race/ethnicity

2.2 - Measures of socioeconomic status

2.3 - Low- and middle-income countries

2.4 - Summary of recent studies

3 - Poverty and progressive chronic kidney disease

3.1 - Neighborhood versus individual level poverty

4 - Poverty and consequences of CKD

5 - Why might poverty lead to CKD?

5.1 - Limited access to healthful foods

5.2 - Dietary patterns

5.3 - Chronic stress

5.4 - Limited access to health care

6 - Conclusions

References

Part VI - Unique Issues in Kidney Disease Among Disadvantaged Populations

Chapter 22 - Mesoamerican Nephropathy or Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Origin

1 - Introduction

2 - Epidemiology

2.1 - Burden of disease in Central America

2.1.1 - El Salvador

2.1.2 - Nicaragua

2.1.3 - Costa Rica

2.1.4 - Guatemala

3 - Clinical and laboratory characteristics

4 - Histopathology

5 - Potential risk factors and causes of MeN

6 - Prevention and treatment

7 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 23 - Prematurity, Low Birth Weight, and CKD

1 - Chronic kidney disease

2 - Inequalities around the world: LBW, prematurity and the Human Development Index (HDI)

3 - Causes of low birth weight and preterm birth

4 - Changing death rates around the world

5 - Postnatal health in relation to LBW and prematurity

6 - Impaired kidney development in the context of LBW and prematurity and CKD

7 - Disadvantaged groups within countries and regions

8 - Some supporting observations

8.1 - The special case of Japan

8.2 - Case study of remote-living Australian Aborigines

8.3 - Evaluation of associations

9 - Conclusions

References

Further reading

Chapter 24 - Hypovitaminosis D and Progression of CKD

1 - Introduction

2 - Vitamin D and progression of kidney disease

2.1 - Experimental data

2.1.1 - Suppression of Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

2.1.2 - Antiinflammatory and Antioxidative Effects

2.1.3 - Antifibrotic Effects

2.1.4 - Protecting Podocytes Against Injury

2.2 - Human studies

2.2.1 - Effect on Proteinuria

2.2.2 - Effect on Kidney Function and/or Progression to End-Stage Renal Disease

3 - Racial differences in hypovitaminosis D and as an explanatory factor for racial disparities in progression of kidney di...

4 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 25 - Renal Care in an Unequal World: Anthropological Reflections

1 - Introduction: fieldwork reflections

2 - Focus and scope

3 - Anthropology and the transplant complex

4 - Organ transplantation and the cultural encounter

5 - Ethnographic research: the problems of specificity and scale

6 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 26 - Developing Nephrology Programs in Low Resource Settings

1 - Introduction

2 - Understanding the local burden of disease: information and research

3 - Developing competent renal healthcare practitioners: healthcare workforce

4 - Delivering sustainable and effective renal care

4.1 - Medical products and technologies

5 - Delivering sustainable and effective renal care

5.1 - Service delivery

5.2 - Screening and primary prevention of kidney disease

5.3 - Secondary prevention of progression of CKD

5.4 - Management of acute and chronic kidney failure

6 - Developing appropriate policies and financial planning for a sustainable and affordable renal program

6.1 - Governance and leadership

7 - Developing appropriate policies and financial planning for a sustainable and affordable renal program

7.1 - Financing

8 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 27 - Renal Transplantation in Low Resource Settings

1 - Introduction

2 - Economic indications

3 - End stage renal disease and access to RRT

4 - Renal transplantation

5 - Organ donation

6 - Commercialism

6.1 - Immunosuppression

6.2 - Outcome measures of renal transplantation

6.3 - Economic models to provide kidney transplantation

6.4 - Access to dialysis and transplantation

6.5 - Transplant facilities

6.6 - Deceased organ donation

6.7 - The way forward in low resource setting

7 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 28 - Renal Transplantation, the Iranian Model

1 - Introduction

2 - Country overview

3 - ESRD profile of Iran

4 - How renal replacement therapy in Iran started?

5 - Historical background of renal transplantation in Iran

6 - Why governmental incentive for donation?

7 - Final link in the transplantation program chain: Legislation of Brain Death Organ Donation Act (2000)

8 - Controversial issues in Iranian model

9 - Conclusions

References

Part VII - CKD Screening and Prevention Strategies in Disadvantaged Populations

Chapter 29 - Developing a Rational Approach for Chronic Kidney Disease Identification: Population Based Versus Targeted Scr...

1 - Introduction

2 - The debate regarding screening for chronic kidney disease

3 - Findings from screening for chronic kidney disease

4 - The kidney early evaluation program and related programs

5 - Screening in low- and middle-income countries

6 - Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 30 - CKD Screening in Mexico

1 - Introduction

2 - CKD screening approaches

3 - Population-based screening

4 - Targeted-screening

5 - Opportunistic-screening

6 - Involvement of primary care physicians in CKD detection

7 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 31 - The Role of Primary Health Care Professionals

1 - Introduction

2 - Prevalence of chronic kidney disease at an early stage

3 - Recommendation for screening of chronic kidney disease

4 - Prevention strategies and role of primary health care professionals

5 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 32 - Chronic Kidney Disease in Disadvantaged Populations: Online Educational Programs for NCD Prevention and Treatment

1 - e-Learning

1.1 - Background

1.2 - Definition

1.3 - Characteristics

1.4 - Theories and models of e-learning

1.5 - Continuing medical education

1.6 - The impact of e-learning in medical education

2 - PIEENSO

2.1 - Features and content

2.2 - Statistics

3 - The CASALUD model

4 - Chronic kidney disease

5 - e-Learning diploma for the prevention and integrated care of noncommunicable diseases

5.1 - Features and content

5.2 - Competency certification

5.3 - Offline modality

5.4 - Results

5.5 - Pretest and posttest results

6 - Conclusions

References

Chapter 33 - Integration of Chronic Kidney Disease Prevention into the Uruguayan National Program for Noncommunicable Diseases

1 - Introduction

2 - The Uruguayan context

3 - Noncommunicable diseases in Uruguay

4 - Surveillance of noncommunicable diseases

5 - Risk factors for noncommunicable diseases

6 - Programs for prevention of noncommunicable diseases

7 - Prevalence and treatment of CKD; end-stage renal disease

7.1 - National Registry of glomerulopathies

8 - National Renal Healthcare Program

8.1 - Goals of the National Renal Healthcare Program

8.2 - Methodology for developing and spreading the NRHP

9 - Inclusion of CKD screening in the mandatory health check-up

10 - Evaluation of the CKD Program; The CKD Registry

11 - Universalization of the CKD Program and regional expansion

12 - Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 34 - Integration of Chronic Kidney Disease Prevention into Noncommunicable Diseases Programs in Cuba

1 - Introduction

2 - Republic of Cuba—demographic characteristics

3 - Healthcare for CKD patients in Cuba

3.1 - Cuba national health system

3.2 - Primary health care

3.3 - Nephrology network

3.4 - Interaction between the primary health care and the nephrology services

4 - The Cuban National Program for the Prevention of Chronic Kidney Disease

5 - CKD mortality

6 - CKD prevalence

7 - Prevalence of CKD risk factors

7.1 - Ageing

7.2 - Educational level and socioeconomic status

7.3 - Low birthweight

7.4 - Diabetes mellitus

7.5 - Hypertension

7.6 - Overweight and obesity

7.7 - Tobacco

7.8 - Hypercolesterolemia and hypertrigliceridemia

7.9 - Infectious diseases

7.10 - Registry, risk assessment, and follow-up of patients with CKD in primary health care

7.11 - Surveillance

8 - Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 35 - Raising Awareness: The World Kidney Day Initiative

1 - Background

2 - Results

3 - WKD editorials

4 - WKD themes

5 - WKD champions

6 - Activation ideas

7 - Conclusions

References

Index

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