Front Cover

Biomaterials

Copyright Page

Dedication

Contents

Author Bio

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 Cell Biology

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Cell Composition and Make-Up

1.2.1 The Nucleus

1.2.2 The Endoplasmic Reticulum, ER

1.2.3 Mitochondria

1.2.4 The Golgi Apparatus

1.2.5 Cell Structure

1.2.6 The Membrane Structure: Phospholipids

1.2.7 Receptors

1.3 Cell Classifications

1.3.1 Stem Cells

1.3.2 Differentiated Cells and Other Classifications

1.4 Cells Associated With Specific Organs and Systems

1.4.1 Cells Found in Blood

1.4.1.1 Platelets

1.4.1.2 Red Blood Cells (RBCs or Erythrocytes)

1.4.1.3 White Blood Cells: Monocytes and Neutrophils

1.5 Cells Found with the Nervous System

1.6 Cells Found in Fibrous, Bony, and Cartilage Connective Tissues

1.7 Reclassifying Cells Based on Organ Function and Physiology

1.7.1 Endothelial Vs Urothelial Cells

1.7.2 Metabolic Cells Found in the Pancreas

1.7.3 Metabolic Cells Found in the Liver

1.7.4 Sentry Cells

1.8 Observation of Cell Size and Morphology: Microscopy

1.9 Bacterial Cell Types

1.10 Conclusions

1.11 Problems

References

2 Cell Expression: Proteins and Their Characterization

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Protein Molecular Weight

2.3 Protein Polydispersity

2.4 Biochemical Determination of Molecular Weight

2.5 Protein Thermodynamics

2.6 Typical Proteinaceous Polymers

2.6.1 Collagen

2.6.2 Keratin

2.6.3 Elastin

2.6.4 Albumin

2.7 Conclusion

2.8 Problems

References

Further Reading

3 Bones and Mineralized Tissues

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Cortical Bone

3.2.1 Cortical Bone Anatomy

3.2.2 The 3.4.2: Haversian System

3.2.3 Composition and Properties of Cortical Bone

3.3 Cancellous (Spongy Bone)

3.3.1 Anatomy of Spongy Bone

3.3.2 Composition and Mechanical Behavior of Spongy Bone

3.4 Teeth

3.4.1 Tooth Anatomy and Evolution

3.4.2 Plaque, Organic Acids, Alter pH and Demineralize Tooth Surfaces

3.4.3 Dentin Exposure Through the Gum-line: Periodontal Disease

3.4.4 Tooth Statics and Dynamics: The Origins of Orthodontia

3.4.5 Endodonics: Resolving the Dying Internal Structure of a Tooth

3.4.6 Sealants as a Preventive Procedure to Fight Tooth Decay

3.4.7 Oral Surgery, Bone Implants, and Fracture Fixation

3.5 Conclusions

3.6 Problems

References

4 Connective and Soft Tissues

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Protein Structure and Composition in the Circulatory System

4.3 Protein Structure of Valvular Tissue and Leaflets

4.3.1 Valve and Leaflet Defects

4.3.2 Aneurysms and Fistulae

4.3.3 Aortic Dissection

4.4 Dermal Tissues, Including Hair and Nerves

4.4.1 The Skin

4.4.2 The Subcutaneous or Adipose Tissues

4.4.3 The Dermis

4.4.4 The Stratum Corneum and Epidermis

4.4.5 Skin Care as a Business

4.5 Hair

4.5.1 Hair Morphology

4.5.2 Features and Attributes of Hair

4.5.3 Hair as a Business

4.6 Nails

4.7 Muscle Tissues

4.8 Looking Ahead

4.9 Conclusions

4.10 Problems

References

5 Property Assessments of Tissues

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Mechanical Properties

5.2.1 Uniaxial Extension and Compression

5.3 How Much Does the Humerus Bone Length Shrink Upon Loading With the Bar?

5.3.1 The Tensile Test

5.3.2 Hookes Law and Hookean Behavior

5.4 Strength

5.4.1 Yield Strength

5.5 Bending

5.6 Torsion

5.7 Cyclic Loading and Fatigue Resistance

5.8 Relationship to Natural Materials

5.9 Viscoelasticity

5.9.1 Maxwell Model

5.9.1.1 Voigt model: retarded behavior

5.10 Time-Dependent Stress–Strain Behavior

5.11 Physical Property Determinations

5.11.1 Density

5.11.2 Conventional X-ray Measurements

5.11.3 Computer Tomography Aided X-Ray Analysis

5.11.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

5.12 Optical Properties

5.12.1 UV/Visible Light Transmission

5.13 Electrical Properties of Tissues

5.14 Conclusions

5.15 Problems

References

6 Environmental Effects on Natural Tissues

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Arteriosclerosis

6.3 Kidney Disease

6.3.1 Models of Kidney Transport

6.4 Obesity

6.5 Osteoporosis

6.6 Valvular Diseases

6.7 Cancer

6.8 Amyloid Diseases

6.9 Skin: How is Aging Manifested?

6.10 Burns and Prior Connective Tissue Trauma

6.11 Conclusions and Final Thoughts

6.12 Problems

References

7 Metallic Biomaterials

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Metals and Phase Equilibria

7.1.2 Features of Solid Solutions and Those of Limited Solubility

7.1.3 Attributes of the Binary Phase Diagram

7.1.4 More Complicated and Realistic Phase Diagrams: Three or More Components

7.2 Characterizing Phase Structure

7.3 Metallic Biomaterial Types

7.3.1 Steels

7.3.2 Co–Cr Alloys

7.3.3 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

7.3.4 NiTi Shape Memory Alloys

7.3.5 Gold, Gold Alloys, and Other Precious Metal Alloys

7.3.6 Other Precious Metals: Pt/ Rh/Pd

7.3.7 Amalgam

7.4 Mechanical Properties

7.5 Schemes to Stress Shielding Further?

7.5.1 β Phase Titanium Alloys

7.5.2 Magnesium-Based Biodegradable Alloys

7.6 Processing

7.7 Conclusion

7.8 Problems

References

8 Ceramic Biomaterials

8.1 Introduction

8.2 CaHAP

8.3 Aluminum Oxide: Al2O3

8.4 Zirconia: ZrO2

8.5 Porcelains

8.6 Carbon

8.7 Processing Schemes and Structures

8.8 Mechanical and Physical Properties

8.9 Particulate Bioceramics

8.10 Bioactive Ceramic Structures

8.11 Relationship With Environment

8.12 Functional Usage

8.13 Conclusion

8.14 Problems

References

9 Polymeric Biomaterials

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Radical Polymerization

9.1.2 Step Polymerization

9.1.3 Copolymerization

9.2 Phase Behavior of Polymers

9.3 Classes of Common Biomedical Polymers

9.3.1 Polyolefins

9.3.1.1 Polyethylene

9.3.1.2 Polypropylene

9.3.2 Beyond olefins: Acrylates

9.3.2.1 Methyl methacrylate

9.3.2.2 BisGMA

9.3.3 Condensation polymers: Polyamides

9.3.3.1 Nylon polyamide 6,6

9.3.3.2 Polyamide 6.10, others

9.3.3.3 Polycaprolactum, Nylon 6

9.3.4 Condensation polymers: Polyesters

9.3.4.1 Polyethylene terephthalate

9.3.4.2 Polycarbonate

9.3.4.3 Polylactic acid/polyglycolic acid/polycaprolactone

9.4 Polyethers

9.5 Silicones

9.6 Natural Polymers

9.7 Other Polymers

9.8 Hydrogels, Scaffolds, and Other Degrading Structures

9.9 Polymeric Sutures

9.10 Drug Delivery: Hydrophilic and Amphiphilic Polymers as Vehicles

9.11 Conclusions

9.12 Problems

References

10 Nanomaterials and Phase Contrast Imaging Agents

10.1 Introduction

10.2 X-ray Diagnostics and Phase Contrast Agents

10.2.1 GI Blockage Assessments

10.2.2 Cardiovascular Phase Contrast Angiography

10.3 MRI Phase Contrast Agents

10.4 PET Imaging

10.5 Conclusion

10.6 Problems

References

11 Orthopedics

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Trauma-Induced Fracture and Repair Strategies

11.2.1 Etiology and Epidemiology of Fracture

11.2.2 Materials of Choice in Fracture Fixation

11.2.3 Tendon and Ligament Repair

11.2.4 Spine Stabilization

11.3 Trauma and Disease in Articulating Joints

11.3.1 The Epidemiology and Etiology of Joint Disease

11.4 Joint Types

11.4.1 Hinge Joints

11.4.2 Ball and Socket Joints

11.4.3 Pivot/Rotary Joints

11.4.4 Gliding/Saddle Joints

11.5 The Mechanics of Joint Replacement

11.6 The Tribology of Joint Replacements: Impact on Joint Lifetime

11.7 Point to the Future

11.8 Thought Exercise: Short-Term Surgical Viability Versus Long-Term Survival

11.9 Other Schemes to Reduce the Wear on Sterilized Surfaces

11.10 Conclusions

11.11 Problems

References

12 Neural Interventions

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Aneurysm and Cerebrovascular Modulation

12.2.1 Clips

12.2.2 Coils

12.2.3 Embolic Fluids

12.2.3.1 Dispersion-based Embolics

12.2.3.2 Reactive Liquid Embolics

12.2.4 Filling of Other Defects

12.3 Neural Probes and Stimulators

12.4 Conclusion

12.5 Problems

References

13 Cardiovascular Interventions

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Valvular Repairs: Rationale for Intervention: Murmurs, Regurgitation, Congestive Heart Failure

13.2.1 Sutures to Address Leaflet Tears

13.2.2 Annulolasty Rings

13.3 Prosthetic and Bioprosthetic Replacement Valves

13.4 Outcomes

13.5 Interchamber Defects

13.6 Vascular Grafts

13.6.1 Dacron Grafts

13.6.2 Expanded Polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE)

13.7 Stents

13.8 Drug Eluting Stents

13.9 Added Constraints: Pediatric Cardiac Interventions

13.10 Pacemakers, Defibrillators, and Associated Hardware

13.11 Conclusions

13.12 Pointing to the Future

13.13 Problems

References

14 Artificial Organs

14.1 Kidney: Dialysis

14.1.1 Dialysis Options

14.1.2 Peritoneal Dialysis

14.1.3 Hemodialysis

14.1.4 Continuous Metabolite Extraction

14.2 Artificial Pancreas

14.3 Artificial Bladders

14.4 Pivoting to the future

14.5 Problems

References

15 Special Topics: Assays Applied to Both Health and Sports

15.1 Introduction and Historical Basis

15.2 What Can be Learned From Urinalysis?

15.2.1 Liquid Chromatography-Based Determinations

15.2.2 Pee Strip Determinations

15.3 Blood Doping

15.4 Conclusion

15.5 Problems and Conceptual Questions

References

Postface

Index

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